CRC Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology: Monitoring, Materials, Synthetic Lubricants, and Applications, Volume III (Handbook of Lubrication)

Volume III extends this handbook series to cover new developments and topics in tribology that have occurred during the past decade. It includes in-depth discussions on revolutionary magnetic bearings used in demanding applications in compressors, high-speed spindles, and aerospace equipment. Extensive coverage is given to tribology developments in office machines and in magnetic storage systems for computers. Monitoring sensors are addressed in the first chapter, followed by chapters on specific monitoring techniques for automobiles, diesels, and rotating machines. One chapter is devoted to procedures used for tracking the remaining life of lubricants. Synthetic lubricants are discussed by outstanding specialists in this rapidly developing field. Synthetics are increasingly important in widely diverse areas, including compressors using the new ozone-layer-friendly refrigerants and a variety of extreme-temperature and environmentally-sensitive applications. Water- and gas-lubricated bearings are given similar attention. The contributors also develop a new, unified coverage for fatigue life of ball and roller bearings; for design and application of porous metal bearings; for self-contained lubrication, involving oil rings, disks, and wicks; and for plastic bearings. Each of these classes of bearings are used by the millions daily throughout industry. The three-volume handbook is an essential reference to tribologists and lubrication, mechanical, and automotive engineers. It is invaluable to lubricant suppliers; bearing companies; those working in the aerospace industry; and anyone concerned with machine design, machinery wear, and maintenance. Cover......Page 1 CRC Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology: Volume III Monitoring, Materials, Synthetic Lubricants, and Applications......Page 3 ISBN-13 9780849339035......Page 4 Preface—Volume III......Page 5 Contributors......Page 9 Table of Contents......Page 12 Variable Area Flow Monitors......Page 15 Oil Flow Sensors Providing On/Off and Alarm Signals......Page 16 Oval GearMeters......Page 20 Orifice-Type Oil Flowmeter......Page 21 Oil and Bearing Temperature Sensors......Page 22 Water Contamination......Page 23 Vibration Sensors......Page 24 Multilevel Alarm......Page 26 Fluctuation Alarm......Page 27 Experience and Conclusions......Page 28 Taking an Oil Sample and Checking for Abnormal Oil......Page 29 Oil Analysis Techniques and Interpretations......Page 30 Viscosity (ASTM D 445, D 4683, D 4684, D 4741, and D 5293)......Page 31 Pentane and Toluene Insolubles (ASTM D 893)......Page 32 Ethylene Glycol in Oil (ASTM D 2982 and D 4291)......Page 33 Metal Analyses......Page 34 Relating Oil Analysis to Engine Damage or Impaired Performance......Page 38 Average Oil Life......Page 39 Application of Models of Oil Aging and Engine Durability......Page 40 On-Board Measurement of Oil Properties......Page 41 Acknowledgment......Page 42 References......Page 43 Background and Development of Used Lube Testing......Page 45 Contamination......Page 46 Degradation......Page 47 Wear Particles......Page 48 Sampling......Page 49 Interpretation of Test Results......Page 50 Trends......Page 51 Future of Lube Analysis for Diesels......Page 52 Bibliography......Page 53 Condition Monitoring......Page 54 Establishing a Predictive Maintenance Program......Page 55 Predictive Maintenance System Selection......Page 56 Preventative Maintenance by Design and Operation......Page 58 Vibration Measurements......Page 59 Vibration Data Analysis Equipment......Page 60 Vibration Data Presentation Alternatives......Page 63 Monitoring Parameters Not Related to Vibration......Page 65 Use of Performance Mapping......Page 67 Identifying Vibration Problems......Page 69 Natural Frequency and Resonance......Page 70 Rotor Dynamic Instability and Sub Synchronous Whirl......Page 71 Aeroelastic Instability and Flutter......Page 72 Interpretation of Machinery Waveforms and Spectra......Page 73 Interpretation of Motor Electrical Waveforms and Spectra......Page 78 Closure......Page 79 References......Page 80 Oil Oxidation......Page 82 Chemical Contamination Removal......Page 84 Particulate Contamination and Wear......Page 85 Filter Fundamentals......Page 87 Filter Efficiency and Particle Removal......Page 88 Comparison of Costs and Benefits......Page 91 Costs......Page 92 Benefits of Filtration......Page 95 Recommended Contamination Levels- How Clean?......Page 96 References......Page 98 Thermal-Oxidative Stressing Techniques......Page 99 Chemical-Oxidative Stressing Techniques......Page 101 Instrumental Techniques......Page 102 Assessment of Techniques......Page 103 Calculating Remaining Useful Life......Page 104 Value of Remaining Useful Life Measurements......Page 105 References......Page 108 Friction and Lubrication......Page 111 Mechanical Aspects ofWear......Page 112 Wear of Lubricated Ceramics......Page 113 Alumina Ceramics......Page 114 Zirconia Ceramics......Page 117 Silicon Nitride Ceramics......Page 118 Sialon Ceramics......Page 121 Silicon Carbide Ceramics......Page 122 Tribological Applications......Page 124 Low Density......Page 125 References......Page 126 Nature of Plastic Materials......Page 129 Polyethylene (PE)......Page 130 Polypropylene (PP)......Page 133 Polyoxymethylene (POM—Acetal)......Page 134 Epoxy Resins......Page 135 Elastomers......Page 136 Friction of Plastics......Page 137 Adhesive Wear......Page 138 PV Characteristics......Page 140 Nylon (PA)......Page 142 PTFE......Page 143 Bearing Design......Page 147 Bearing Clearances......Page 148 Surfaces......Page 150 Wall Thickness......Page 151 Heat Generation and Rubbing Speeds......Page 152 Lubrication......Page 153 Bibliography......Page 155 Casting......Page 156 Theoretical Basis For Understanding Friction and Wear Behavior in Composites......Page 157 Friction and Thin Film Lubrication......Page 158 Wear in Composites Containing Solid Lubricants......Page 159 Friction Characteristics......Page 161 Wear Characteristics......Page 163 Environmental Conditions and Lubrication......Page 166 Wear in Electrical Contacts......Page 168 Film Formation......Page 169 Industrial Applications......Page 170 References......Page 172 Design Considerations......Page 174 Impingement......Page 175 Resin-Bonded Coatings......Page 176 Inorganic Bonded Solid Film Lubricants......Page 178 Sputtered Films......Page 179 Composite Coatings......Page 180 Grit Blast......Page 181 Chemical Treatment......Page 182 Inorganic Bonded......Page 184 Comparative Performance Characteristics......Page 185 References......Page 188 Introduction: Unique Aerospace Demands......Page 189 Gas Turbine Engine Oils......Page 190 Hydraulic Fluids......Page 192 Other Fluids and Lubricants......Page 194 Development Fluids and Lubricants......Page 195 References......Page 196 Textile Industry......Page 198 Brick and Ceramics Industry......Page 201 Metal Industries......Page 202 Air Compressors......Page 203 Load Extremes......Page 204 Sintered Bearings......Page 205 Environment Extremes......Page 206 Biodegradability......Page 207 References......Page 208 Introduction and Background......Page 209 Passenger Car Motor Oils......Page 210 Full Synthetic Engine Oils......Page 212 Diesel Trends......Page 213 Engine Oil-Diesel Partial Synthetics......Page 214 Commercial Gear and Transmission Oils......Page 215 Automatic Transmission Fluids......Page 217 Summary......Page 219 References......Page 220 Polyalphaolefin Characteristics......Page 221 Manufacture......Page 222 Physical Properties......Page 224 End-Use Applications For PAOs......Page 225 Automotive Crankcase......Page 226 Automotive Transmissions......Page 229 Industrial Gear......Page 231 Biodegradability......Page 232 Conclusion......Page 233 References......Page 234 Introduction......Page 238 Dibasic Acid Esters......Page 239 Polymetric Esters......Page 242 Fluid Properties......Page 243 Applications......Page 244 Automotive Applications and Ester Properties......Page 245 Magnetic Storage Systems......Page 248 Oxidation Stability......Page 249 Hydrolysis......Page 250 Surface Tension......Page 251 Summary......Page 252 References......Page 253 Polyalkylene Glycol Characterization......Page 254 Corrosion......Page 256 Flash Points......Page 258 Solubility......Page 259 Inverse Solubility......Page 260 Formulating with Polyalkylene Glycols......Page 261 Gear Lubricants......Page 262 Food Grade Lubricants......Page 263 Metalworking Fluids......Page 264 Textile Lubricants......Page 265 Selection of the Appropriate Polyalkylene Glycol Lubricant......Page 266 Summary......Page 267 References......Page 268 Chemistry......Page 269 Trialkyl and Alkyl Aryl Phosphate Ester Production......Page 270 Physical Properties......Page 271 Lubrication......Page 272 Oxidative Stability......Page 273 Solubility/Compatibility Characteristics......Page 274 Volatility......Page 276 Compressibility......Page 277 Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids......Page 278 Formulating Phosphate Ester Fluids......Page 281 Defoamers......Page 282 Toxicology......Page 283 References......Page 284 Preparation of PFPE Types......Page 287 Compatibility of PFPE Fluids with Metals and Metal Compounds......Page 288 Hydrolytic and Chemical Stability......Page 290 Compatibility with Elastomers and Plastics......Page 291 Flammability......Page 293 Radiation Resistance......Page 294 Shear Stability......Page 295 Lubrication......Page 297 PFPE Greases......Page 299 Acknowledgments......Page 301 References......Page 303 The Chlorosilanes......Page 304 Manufacture fo Siloxanes......Page 305 Chlorophenyl Silicones......Page 306 Surface Tension......Page 307 Low Temperature Properties......Page 308 Shear Stability......Page 309 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus......Page 310 Oxidative Stability......Page 311 With Other Fluids......Page 312 With Metals......Page 313 Falex Tester......Page 314 Dimethyl Silicones......Page 315 Methyl Phenyl Fluids......Page 316 Greases......Page 317 Methyl Phenyl Greases......Page 318 Conclusions......Page 319 References......Page 320 Introduction......Page 321 Tape Drives......Page 322 Rigid Disk Drives......Page 324 Magnetic Heads......Page 326 Magnetic Media......Page 328 Friction and Adhesion......Page 331 Conventional Friction......Page 333 Liquid-Mediated Adhesion (Stiction)......Page 343 Interface Temperatures......Page 351 Head-(Particulate) Tape Interface......Page 352 Head-(Particulate) Rigid Disk Interface......Page 354 Head-(Thin-Film) Rigid Disk Interface......Page 356 Lubrication......Page 366 References......Page 367 Magnetic Storage......Page 371 Electronic Packaging......Page 372 Electromechanical Applications......Page 375 Paper Handling......Page 376 Printing......Page 377 Lubrication......Page 379 References......Page 381 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 382 Rotary Vane Compressors......Page 383 The Refrigeration Cycle......Page 384 Solution Behavior......Page 385 Evaluation Methods......Page 387 Solubility and Miscibility......Page 388 Mineral Oils......Page 389 Lubricant Applications and Practices......Page 390 Chlorofluorocarbons and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons......Page 391 Lubricants for HFC Applications......Page 392 Ammonia......Page 394 Lubricant Maintenance Practices......Page 395 Viscosity-Solubility Charts......Page 396 References......Page 402 How Oil Mist Works......Page 404 Application Fitting Types......Page 405 Venting......Page 406 Application Fittings Sizes......Page 407 Selecting the Mist Generator......Page 408 Oil Mist Distribution......Page 409 Rolling Element (AntiFriction) Bearings......Page 411 Plain Bearings......Page 413 Gears......Page 415 Chains......Page 416 Prelubrication and Machine Start-Up......Page 417 What Is High-Speed Machining?......Page 418 Mechanisms of Material Removal in HSM......Page 423 Tool-Chip Interface Temperature......Page 425 Tool Wear......Page 429 Tool Life......Page 431 Tool Material Selection for HSM of Specific Materials......Page 432 Cutting Fluids in HSM......Page 433 Acknowledgments......Page 434 References......Page 435 Seal Types......Page 437 General Theory......Page 438 Hydrostatic Rayleigh Step Seal......Page 439 Hydrodynamic Rayleigh Step Seal......Page 442 Hydrodynamic Tapered Land Seal......Page 443 Hydrostatic Recess Seal......Page 445 Spiral Groove Seal......Page 448 Dynamic Response......Page 451 Thermoelastic Distortions......Page 456 Nomenclature......Page 458 References......Page 460 Ball Bearing Ratings......Page 461 Roller Bearing Ratings......Page 462 The Load-Life Relationship for Bearings......Page 463 Life Adjustment From Rating Conditions......Page 464 Reliability Factor a1......Page 465 Material Factor a2......Page 468 Lubricant-Topography Subfactors......Page 469 Load Zone—Alignment Subfactors......Page 470 Contaminants—Liquid and Solid Subfactors......Page 471 Fatigue Spall Criteria Subfactors......Page 475 Status of Extremes of Operation......Page 476 Nomenclature......Page 479 References......Page 480 Material Composition and Specifications......Page 482 Iron and Iron-Carbon Bearings......Page 485 Lubricating Oils......Page 486 Oil Circulation and Loss......Page 489 Friction......Page 491 Energy Balance......Page 492 PV Factor......Page 493 Seizure......Page 494 Bearing Diametrical Clearance......Page 495 Length-to-Diameter Ratio......Page 497 Noise......Page 498 Background......Page 499 Starved Porous Bearings......Page 500 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication......Page 502 References......Page 503 Oil-Ring Bearings......Page 505 Oil-Ring Bearing Operation......Page 507 Ring Oil Delivery Rate......Page 509 Disk-Oiled Bearings......Page 511 Fixed-Scraper/Disk Oil Delivery-Numerical Example......Page 512 Starved Bearing Analysis......Page 515 Wick-Lubricated Bearings......Page 518 Nomenclature......Page 522 References......Page 523 Bearing Materials......Page 524 Running Clearance......Page 525 Permissible Radial Load......Page 526 Shaft Speed......Page 530 Shaft Material and Hardness......Page 531 Mixed Film Regime......Page 533 Plasto-ElastoHydrodynamic Lubrication......Page 534 Wear......Page 535 Friction......Page 536 Theoretical Coefficient of Friction......Page 537 Other Bearing Materials......Page 538 References......Page 540 Introduction......Page 541 Reynolds Equation......Page 542 Property Values......Page 543 Rectangular Slider, Sector-Pad, and Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearings......Page 545 Design Procedure for Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearings......Page 549 Steady-State Performance......Page 552 Whirl Instability......Page 553 Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings......Page 556 Steady-State Performance......Page 558 Dynamic Stability Considerations......Page 562 References......Page 563 Basic Actuator Theory......Page 564 Sensors, Controllers, and Power Amplifiers......Page 570 Industrial Canned Motor Pump Application......Page 574 Thrust Bearings......Page 576 Radial Bearings......Page 580 Magnetic Losses and Other Properties......Page 583 References......Page 586