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Controlled Release Fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture provides a comprehensive examination of precision fertilizer applications using the 4-R approach—the right amount of fertilizer at the right time to the right plant at the correct stage of plant growth. This volume consolidates detailed information on each aspect of controlled release fertilizers, including up-to-date literature citations, the current market for controlled release fertilizers and patents. Presenting the tremendous advances in experimental and theoretical studies on sustainable agriculture and related areas, this book provides in-depth insight into state-of-the-art controlled release mechanisms of fertilizers, techniques, and their use in sustainable agriculture. Conventional release mechanisms have historically meant waste of fertilizers and the adverse effects of that waste on the environment. Controlled release delivery makes significant strides in enhancing fertilizer benefit to the target plant, while protecting the surrounding environment and increasing sustainability. Presents cutting-edge interdisciplinary insights specifically focused on the controlled release of fertilizers Explores the benefits and challenges of 4-R fertilizer use Includes expertise from leading researchers in the fields of agriculture, polymer science, and nanotechnology working in industry, academics, government, and private research institutions across the globe Presents the tremendous advances in experimental and theoretical studies on sustainable agriculture and related areas ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Front-Matter_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-Sustainable-Agriculture.pdf‎ Controlled Release Fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Copyright_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-Sustainable-Agriculture.pdf‎ Copyright ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Contributors_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-Sustainable-Agriculture.pdf‎ Contributors ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-1---Conventional-methods-o_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-S.pdf‎ 1 . Conventional methods of fertilizer release 1. Introduction 2. Classification 2.1 Based on the nutrient supply 2.1.1 Single nutrient or straight fertilizers 2.1.2 Multinutrient or complex fertilizers 2.1.2.1 Binary (NP, NK, and PK) fertilizers 2.1.2.2 NPK fertilizers 2.2 Based on the presence or absence of carbon 2.2.1 Organic fertilizer 2.2.2 Inorganic fertilizer 3. Mode of application 3.1 Application of solid fertilizers 3.1.1 Broadcasting 3.1.1.1 Broadcasting at sowing or planting (basal application) 3.1.1.2 Top dressing 3.1.2 Placement 3.1.2.1 Plough sole placement 3.1.2.2 Deep placement 3.1.2.3 Localized placement 3.1.2.3.1 Drilling 3.1.2.3.2 Side dressing 3.1.3 Band placement 3.1.3.1 Hill placement 3.1.3.2 Row placement 3.1.4 Pellet application 3.2 Application of liquid fertilizers and water-soluble granular fertilizers 3.2.1 Starter solutions 3.2.2 Foliar application 3.2.3 Injection into soil/plants 3.2.4 Aerial application 3.2.5 Fertigation 4. The controlled-release fertilizers 5. Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers 6. Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake 7. Overfertilization 8. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-2---Fate-of-the-conventional-_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-fo.pdf‎ 2 . Fate of the conventional fertilizers in environment 1. Introduction 2. Major components of fertilizer residues 3. Side effects of fertilizer residues 3.1 Influence of mineral fertilizers 3.2 Phosphate anions 3.3 Potassium cations 3.4 Calcium and magnesium 3.5 Nitrogen 3.6 Phosphorus 3.7 Sulfur 4. Effect on water pollution 5. Effect on soil pollution 6. Effect on air pollution 7. Role of greenhouse gas emission 7.1 Nitrous oxide emissions 7.2 Methane emission 8. Effect on food quality 8.1 Impact of fertilizer use on heavy metal accumulation in agricultural land 9. Fertilizer guidelines 9.1 Superphosphate 9.2 Nitrogen 9.3 Impact of fertilizers on human health 10. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-3---Controlled-release-of-fertil_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers.pdf‎ 3 . Controlled release of fertilizers-concept, reality, and mechanism 1. Introduction 1.1 Controlled release fertilizers 1.2 Slow release fertilizers 1.3 Control release fertilizers versus slow release fertilizers 2. Factors influencing fertilizer release 3. How does it work? 4. Different types of slow or controlled release fertilizers [16] 5. Advantages of CRFs 6. Disadvantages of CRFs 7. Classification of controlled release fertilizers 7.1 Slow versus controlled release 7.2 Systematic classification 7.2.1 Organic N low solubility compounds 7.2.2 Fertilizers in which a physical barrier controls the release 7.2.3 Inorganic low solubility compounds 8. Controlled and slow release fertilizers 8.1 Slowly releasing organic N compound 8.1.1 Urea formaldehyde condensation products 8.1.2 Synthetic nitrogen compounds 8.2 Coated fertilizers 8.2.1 Nonorganic coatings 8.2.2 Polymer coating of sulfur-coated fertilizers 8.2.3 Fertilizers coated with organic polymers 8.2.3.1 Resin-coated fertilizers 8.2.3.2 Thermoplastic polymer-coated fertilizers 8.2.3.3 Matrix-based slow release fertilizers 8.2.3.4 Low solubility inorganic fertilizers 9. Mechanisms of control release 10. Factors affecting the nutrient release 11. Mode of nutrient release from CRFs 11.1 Diffusion model 11.2 Empirical and semiempirical models 11.3 Conceptual model 11.4 Diffusion release 11.5 Failure release 12. Application of CRFs in agriculture 13. Future aspects 14. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-4---Characteristics-and-types-of-_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizer.pdf‎ 4 . Characteristics and types of slow- and controlled-release fertilizers 1. Introduction 2. Control- and slow-release fertilizers 2.1 Characterization of fertilizers with slow/control release of nutrients 2.2 Improved classification 2.3 Types of slow/control-release fertilizers 2.3.1 Physical type 2.3.1.1 Coated fertilizers 2.3.1.2 Matrix-based fertilizers 2.3.2 Chemical type 2.3.2.1 Chemically bonded fertilizers 2.3.2.2 Chemically inhibited fertilizers 2.3.3 Compound type 3. Advantages of using CRFs and SRFs 4. Conclusions References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-5---Methods-for-controlled-_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-.pdf‎ 5 . Methods for controlled release of fertilizers 1. Introduction 2. Uncoated nitrogen-based fertilizers 2.1 Isobutylidene diurea (IBDU) 2.2 Crotonylidene diurea (CDU) 3. Coated nitrogen-based fertilizers 4. Polymer-coated controlled-release fertilizer 4.1 Polymer-coated SCU 4.2 Polyolefin-coated urea (POCU) 4.3 Resin-coated fertilizers 4.4 Biodegradable organic polymers 4.4.1 Pectin 4.4.2 Tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) 4.4.3 Mimosa pudica seed mucilage 4.4.4 Guar gum 4.4.5 Terminalia catappa gum (TC) 4.4.6 Gellan gum 4.4.7 Mucuna gum 4.4.8 Gum copal (GC) and gum dammar-GD 4.4.9 Karaya gum or xanthan gum 4.4.10 Gum acacia 4.4.11 Modified clays 5. Commercially available polymer-coated CRF 5.1 Osmocote 5.2 Nutricote 5.3 Polyon 6. Preparations of CRF formulations 7. Field application methods 8. Biodegradability of CRFs 9. Advantages of controlled release of fertilizers 10. Drawback of controlled-release fertilizers 11. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-6---Manufacturing-of-slow-and-_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-f.pdf‎ 6 . Manufacturing of slow and controlled release fertilizer 1. Introduction 2. Coated fertilizer manufacture 2.1 Sulfur-coated fertilizer 2.2 Polymer coated fertilizer 2.3 Hybrid coating 2.4 Biobased coating 3. Matrix dispersed fertilizer 3.1 Wax dispersed fertilizer 3.2 Natural material dispersed fertilizer 4. CRF testing procedure 5. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-7---Controlling-factors-of-slow-_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers.pdf‎ 7 . Controlling factors of slow or controlled-release fertilizers 1. Introduction 2. Fertilizer’s composition and shape 2.1 S-CRF generalities and interest 2.2 Solubility and bioavailability of nutriment 2.3 Fertilizer's shape: granulate 3. Coating composition and physical-chemical properties 3.1 Type of coating 3.2 Coating layer properties (porosity, thickness, ...) 4. Soil parameters 4.1 Soil biological/microbial activity 4.2 Soil physical-chemical properties 5. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-8---Sensors-detecting-contro_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for.pdf‎ 8 . Sensors detecting controlled fertilizer release 1. Introduction 2. Nanosensors 2.1 Carbon nanotube-based sensors 2.2 Nanoaptamers 2.3 Safety aspects and limitations of nanosensors 3. High-speed stereovision 4. Optical sensors 5. Remote sensing 5.1 Imaging and nonimaging chlorophyll fluorescence 5.2 Thermography 5.3 Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging 5.4 Nutritional status monitoring with satellites and airborne platforms 6. Conclusions References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-9---Trends-and-technologies-behi_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers.pdf‎ 9 . Trends and technologies behind controlled-release fertilizers 1. Introduction 2. Generalized mechanism of controlled-release fertilizers 3. Compositions of controlled-release fertilizers 3.1 Natural polymers 3.1.1 Gum 3.1.1.1 Xanthan gum 3.1.1.2 Gaur gum 3.1.1.3 Gellan gum 3.1.1.4 Mucuna gum 3.1.1.5 Gum copal (GC) 3.1.1.6 Karaya gum 3.1.2 Seed polysaccharide 3.1.2.1 Tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) 3.1.2.2 Mimosa pudica seed mucilage 3.1.2.3 Leucaena leucocephala seed polysaccharide (LLSP) 3.1.3 Bio-derived materials 3.1.3.1 Chitosan 3.1.3.2 Carrageenam 3.1.3.3 Pectin 3.2 Modified clay 3.3 Organoclay chemistry 4. Failure of release 5. Petroleum-based polymers 6. Nano fertilizers 7. Nanofertilizers are of different types 7.1 Nitrogen (N) nanofertilizers 7.2 Phosphorus (P) nano fertilizers 8. Synthesis of nanoparticle or nanofertilizer 9. Conclusion References Further reading ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-10---Nanotechnology-in-contro_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-fo.pdf‎ 10 . Nanotechnology in controlled-release fertilizers∗ 1. Introduction 2. Designing of nanofertilizer 3. Advantages of nanofertilizers 3.1 Controlling the release profile of nutrients 3.2 Enhancing the solubility and bioavailability 3.3 Enhanced release duration 4. Types of nanofertilizers 4.1 Layered double hydroxides in controlled release 4.2 Zeolites 4.3 Nanoclays 4.4 Carbon-based nanofertilizer 4.5 Mesoporous silica 4.6 Polymeric nanoparticles 5. Nanosensors 6. Methods of fertilizer release 7. Factors affecting the designing of nano-based controlled-release system 8. Nanotoxicity in the fields 9. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-11---Polymer-formulations-for-c_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-.pdf‎ 11 . Polymer formulations for controlled release of fertilizers 1. Introduction 1.1 Fertilizers 1.2 Mechanism 2. Classification of fertilizers 2.1 Nature of nutrient element 2.2 Single nutrient and multinutrient fertilizers 2.3 Organic fertilizers 2.4 Coated and uncoated nitrogen-based and polymer-coated multinutrient fertilizers 3. Polymer formulations for controlled release of fertilizers 3.1 Polymer-based CRF 3.2 Starch and its derivatives 3.3 Polyurethane 3.4 Polysulfone 4. Conclusions References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-12---Chemistry-and-toxicology_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-fo.pdf‎ 12 . Chemistry and toxicology behind chemical fertilizers 1. Introduction 2. Types of fertilizers 3. Chemistry of chemical fertilizer 3.1 Nitrogenous fertilizers 3.1.1 Ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4] 3.1.1.1 Synthesis 3.1.1.2 Reactions in soil 3.1.2 Urea [(NH2)2CO] 3.1.2.1 Synthesis 3.1.2.2 Reactions in soil 3.2 Phosphatic fertilizers 3.2.1 Synthesis 3.2.2 Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 3.2.2.1 Chemical properties 3.2.3 Monoammonium phosphate (MAP) 3.2.4 Reactions in soils 3.2.5 Superphosphate 3.2.6 Rock phosphate 3.3 Potassic fertilizers 3.3.1 Muriate of potash or potassium chloride (KCI) 3.3.2 Sulfate of potash (K2SO4) 3.3.3 Langbeinite process 3.3.4 Trona process 3.3.5 Glaserite process 3.3.6 Reactions in soil 3.4 Toxicology of chemical fertilizers 4. Impact of chemical fertilizers on environment 4.1 Effects of chemical fertilizers on soil pollution 4.1.1 Soil acidification 4.1.1.1 Role of N, P, and S in soil acidification 4.1.2 Heavy metal accumulation in the soils 4.1.3 Emission of greenhouse gases 4.1.4 Accumulation of mineral salts of fertilizers in soils 4.1.5 Effects on soil microbial community 4.1.6 Inhibits symbiotic nitrogen fixation by rhizobia 4.1.7 Reduces the nutritional values of crops 4.1.8 The antibiotic resistance genes in fertilizers increase soil antibiotic resistome 4.2 Effects of chemical fertilizers on water pollution 4.2.1 Stimulates eutrophication in water bodies 4.2.2 Enhances ground water pollution 4.2.2.1 Role of nitrate and heavy metals in ground water pollution 4.2.2.2 Role of ammonia in ground water pollution 4.2.3 Enhances surface water pollution 4.2.4 Enhances pollution of marine ecosystem 4.2.4.1 Marine eutrophication and fisheries 4.3 Effects of chemical fertilizers on air pollution 4.3.1 Emission of harmful GHGs results in global warming thereby forcing climate change 4.3.2 Acid rain causes mineral depletion in the soil and aquatic bodies 4.4 Effects of chemical fertilizers on human health 5. Conclusion Acknowledgment References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Chapter-13---Organic-fertilizers-as-a-rou_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizer.pdf‎ 13 . Organic fertilizers as a route to controlled release of nutrients 1. Introduction 2. Natural organic fertilizers 2.1 Organic manure 2.2 Peanut hulls manure 2.3 Poultry manure 2.4 Fish manure 2.5 Cattle manure 2.6 Horse dung manure 3. Processed organic fertilizers 3.1 Bone meal 3.2 Cottonseed meal 3.3 Blood meal 3.4 Seaweed 3.5 Wood ash 4. Biofertilizers 5. Controlled release of organic fertilizers 5.1 Glass matrix fertilizer (GMF) 5.2 Organo mineral fertilizer 5.3 Sodium bentonite and alginate (NaAlg) composites 5.4 Lignin-based controlled-release coatings 5.5 Hydrophilic polymers 5.6 Macromolecular slow-release fertilizer (MSF) 5.7 Coffee spent grounds (CSG) 6. Conclusion References ‎C:\Users\pc\Downloads\Compressed\Controlled release fertilizers for sustainable agriculture\Index_2021_Controlled-Release-Fertilizers-for-Sustainable-Agriculture.pdf‎ Index A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T U W X Z