Contesting Conservation: Shahtoosh Trade And Forest Management In Jammu And Kashmir, India (advances In Asian Human-environmental Research)

This book explores today’s changing intellectual climate, wherein understanding politics at different levels from global to local is considered mandatory in order to appraise the outcome of nature conservation interventions. By carefully examining two such processes – the ban on __shahtoosh__ trade and the ‘National Afforestation Programme’ in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, the book reveals how these processes are influenced by politics at different levels – from their introduction at the macro-level to their implementation at the micro-level – and in turn become coloured by the agendas and interests of the various stakeholders involved. Throughout the book, one priority is to give a voice to the poor resource-users who have been traditionally dependent on wildlife and forest resources for mere subsistence. Yet, these same people are who bear the brunt of nature conservation costs, rather than those actors who are responsible for the most serious violations in pursuit of greater profits. Contemporary Environmental Sociology is chiefly characterised by its focus on power relations in resource conservation and management. In ‘political ecology’ literature, too – especially after recognising the paradoxes and limitations of approaches such as ‘sustainable development’, ‘sustainable livelihoods’ and ‘community based natural resource management’ – there is a growing concern for critical analyses of multi-level politics in connection with nature conservation. The purpose of the book is not to challenge the gravity of environmental concerns, but to question the dominance of conservation interests over the subsistence needs of local communities, and to strike a balance between environmental and social justice. It argues that, unless and until more just accountability for the affected populations is ensured, conservation policies are unlikely to meet the goals of sustainable resource management. Given its critical engagement with human-nature conflicts in Jammu and Kashmir, the book offers a unique resource for students and scholars of Environmental Sociology, Political Ecology, Natural Resources Management, Conflict Studies and Human Rights Studies. Dedication 6 Acknowledgements 7 Contents 9 Acronyms 13 Units of Conversion 15 List of Figures 16 List of Table and Map 17 Chapter 1: Introduction 18 1.1 Wildlife and Forest Conservation in J&K: An Introduction 20 1.1.1 The Ban on Shahtoosh Trade 20 1.1.2 National Afforestation Programme 22 1.2 Political Ecology: Approaches and Analytical Framework 25 1.3 Theoretical Positioning 26 1.4 Contesting Conservation: What This Study Contributes 31 1.5 Chapter Layout 32 References 34 Chapter 2: Jammu and Kashmir: Contextualising Conservation in Specific Sites 39 2.1 Research Setting 40 2.1.1 Jammu and Kashmir: An Introduction 40 2.1.2 Field Locations 44 2.2 Research Methods 45 2.2.1 Ethnography of Conservation Interventions 45 2.2.2 Research in the Context of Violent Conflict 48 2.2.2.1 Debunking Presumed Identities 49 2.2.2.2 Researching Activities Outside of the Law 49 References 50 Chapter 3: Tibetan Antelope and Shahtoosh Shawl: A Brief History 52 3.1 Tibetan Antelope 53 3.1.1 Chiru and Its Habitat 53 3.1.2 The Shahtoosh Wool: Myths and Realities 54 3.2 Shahtoosh Shawl 58 3.2.1 From Raw Wool to Finished Shawl: The Production Process 58 3.2.1.1 Bhotias and Local Dealers 60 3.2.1.2 Manufacturers or Vastas 60 3.2.1.3 Agents or Poiywans 60 3.2.1.4 Separators or Charun Wajens 61 3.2.1.5 Spinners or Katun Wajens 61 3.2.1.6 Thread-Processors or Perkumgors 62 3.2.1.7 Warp-Dressers or Penkumgors 62 3.2.1.8 Warp-Threaders or Barangors 63 3.2.1.9 Weavers or Vovers 63 3.2.1.10 Washers or Dhobis 64 3.2.1.11 Clippers or Puruzgars 64 3.2.1.12 Darners or Raffugars 64 3.2.1.13 Dyers or Rangrez 64 3.2.1.14 Designers or Naqqashs 64 3.2.1.15 Printers or Chappawals 65 3.2.1.16 Embroiderers or Ragbars 65 3.2.1.17 Hawkers or Pheriwalas 65 3.2.1.18 Traders and Exporters 65 3.2.2 Shahtoosh Workers: Population and Distribution 66 3.3 Kashmir Shawl Industry 66 3.3.1 Origin and Development of the Shawl Industry 66 3.3.1.1 Kashmir Sultans (1320–1569): Introduction of Persian Designs to Craftsmen in Kashmir 67 3.3.1.2 Mughal Period (1586–1753): Shahtoosh Shawls as Symbolic Capital 68 3.3.1.3 Afghan Period (1753–1819): Expansion of Markets and Emergence of Independent Karkhanas 69 3.3.1.4 Sikh Period (1819–1846): Emigration of Shawl Workers to Punjab 69 3.3.1.5 Dogra Period (1846–1877): The Rising and Falling Demand of Shahtoosh Shawls 70 3.3.2 Marginalisation and Exploitation of the Shawl Workers: Pre-independence 71 3.3.3 Shahtoosh Workers and the New State: Post-independence 73 3.4 Conclusion 75 References 76 Chapter 4: The Ban on Shahtoosh: Sustainability for Whom? 78 4.1 Ban on Shahtoosh 80 4.1.1 A Chronology of Events 80 4.1.1.1 WPSI vs. J&K State: Petition and the Response 81 4.1.2 The Prospects of chiru Farming: Observations of the ‘Expert Group’ 88 4.2 State and Shawl Workers 93 4.2.1 Weak Enforcement and Split Role of the State 93 4.2.2 Shawl Workers Response to the Ban: Protest and Politics 96 4.3 Illegality and Conflict 100 4.3.1 The Trade Continues: Illegality and Shadow Networks of Shahtoosh 100 4.3.2 Militancy and Shahtoosh: Exploring the Connections 102 4.4 Conclusion 104 References 106 Chapter 5: The Micropolitics of the Ban on Shahtoosh: Costs and Reparations 109 5.1 Impacts of Banning 110 5.1.1 The Origin of Wool and the Unpopularity of the Ban 111 5.1.2 Different Categories, Differential Impact 112 5.1.3 Machines and Adulteration 117 5.1.4 Decreasing Wages, Increasing Prices: Strategies of Labour Exploitation and Control 120 5.1.5 Declining Social Prestige and Cultural Heritage 125 5.2 Rehabilitation and Alternative Livelihoods: Accountability of Whom? 127 5.3 Conclusion 131 References 133 Chapter 6: Forests, State and People: A Historical Account of Forest Management and Control in J&K 135 6.1 Forest Management in Early Colonial Period 136 6.2 Local Access Versus Commercial Interests: The Politics of Scientific Forestry in the Late Colonial Period 138 6.3 National Interests Versus Local Needs: The Politics of Forest Management in the Post-Colonial Period 147 6.4 Conclusion 153 References 154 Chapter 7: Joint Management of Forests and Split Role of the State: The Politics of Forest Conservation in J&K 156 7.1 Joint Management of Forests: New Arenas of ‘Partnership’ and ‘Participation’ 158 7.1.1 National Afforestation Programme: Facilitating JFM Through ‘Decentralisation’ 161 7.2 Setting the Scene: Interplay Between Centre, State and Non-state Actors 166 7.2.1 FD and JFMCs 166 7.2.2 SFC and FD 171 7.2.3 MoEF and FD 172 7.2.4 NGOs and FD 173 7.3 The Politics of Forest Resource Control 175 7.3.1 Navni and Chinnora: A Brief Introduction 175 7.3.2 Our Forests, Their Timber 176 7.3.3 Split Role of the Field-Staff: Forest Regulations vis-a-vis Local Needs 179 7.4 Conclusion 182 References 183 Chapter 8: The Micropolitics of Forest Use and Control: New Spaces for Cooperation and Conflict 186 8.1 From Centralisation to Decentralisation: Do Blockages Disappear? 188 8.2 Panchayat and JFMC: Conflicting Powers and Functions 193 8.3 Increased Biomass, Reduced Access 198 8.4 Illegal Timber Felling: What If Fence Eats the Grass? 207 8.5 Conclusion 212 References 213 Chapter 9: On Conservation Politics: Cooperation, Conflicts and Contestations 217 9.1 Power as Dispersed and Fluid 219 9.2 Between Cooperation and Conflict: Spaces for Contestation 220 9.2.1 Science, Law and Politics 220 9.2.2 Uneasy Partnerships and Collaborations 222 9.2.3 Split Role of the State 223 9.2.4 Differential Impact, Differential Abilities 224 9.2.5 Rationality of Rule 225 9.2.6 On Illegality 226 9.2.7 Limited Space for Protest 227 9.3 Who Is Accountable? 228 9.4 Practical Implications 229 9.5 Conclusion 230 References 230 Bibliography 234 Index 248 Front Matter ....Pages i-xix Introduction (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 1-21 Jammu and Kashmir: Contextualising Conservation in Specific Sites (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 23-35 Tibetan Antelope and Shahtoosh Shawl: A Brief History (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 37-62 The Ban on Shahtoosh: Sustainability for Whom? (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 63-93 The Micropolitics of the Ban on Shahtoosh: Costs and Reparations (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 95-120 Forests, State and People: A Historical Account of Forest Management and Control in J&K (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 121-141 Joint Management of Forests and Split Role of the State: The Politics of Forest Conservation in J&K (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 143-172 The Micropolitics of Forest Use and Control: New Spaces for Cooperation and Conflict (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 173-203 On Conservation Politics: Cooperation, Conflicts and Contestations (Saloni Gupta)....Pages 205-221 Back Matter ....Pages 223-240