Constructions in Cognitive Contexts: Why Individuals Matter in Linguistic Relativity Research (Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs)

In what ways are language, cognition and perception interrelated? Do they influence each other? This book casts a fresh light on these questions by putting individual speakers’ cognitive contexts, i.e. their usage-preferences and entrenched patterns of linguistic knowledge, into the focus of investigation. It presents findings from original experimental research on spatial language use which indicate that these individual-specific factors indeed play a central role in determining whether or not differences in the current and/or habitual linguistic behaviour of speakers of German and English are systematically correlated with differences in non-linguistic behaviour (visual attention allocation to and memory for spatial referent scenes). These findings form the basis of a new, speaker-focused usage-based model of linguistic relativity, which defines language-perception/cognition effects as a phenomenon which primarily occurs within individual speakers rather than between speakers or speech communities. Acknowledgements 7 Contents 9 List of figures 13 List of tables 17 Abbreviations 19 1 Constructions in cognitive contexts 21 1.1 Introduction 21 1.2 Synopsis 23 2 Setting the theoretical scene 26 2.1 Linguistic relativity versus (?) usage-based linguistics 26 2.1.1 Linguistic relativity 26 2.1.2 Usage-based cognitive linguistics 30 2.2 Linguistic construal, perceptual attention and the Degrees of Object-focusedness Scale 32 2.3 Construal types as analytical tools 37 2.3.1 Windowing of Attention 38 2.3.2 Weighting of Attention 42 3 Construing spatial scenes in German and English 47 3.1 Spatial language and spatial referent scenes 47 3.1.1 Functions of spatial language 47 3.1.2 Modelling static spatial scenes for linguistic reference 49 3.2 Search Spaces and static spatial language in German and English 54 3.2.1 Search Spaces I: Topological spaces 58 3.2.2 Search Spaces II: Dimensional spaces 60 3.3 Spatial constructions and degrees of object-focusedness construal 68 3.3.1 Transitive non-nominal terms and constructions 70 3.3.2 Nominal terms and constructions 72 3.3.3 Intransitive non-nominal terms and constructions 84 3.3.4 Spatial constructions as [form-degrees of object-focusedness construal meaning]-associations: An overview and analytical tool 96 4 Attention, ‘ception’ and language: Basic considerations 103 4.1 Construal and cognition 103 4.2 Attention and selection 104 4.3 Perception and cognition, or ‘ception’? 106 4.4 Embodied cognition and language 109 4.4.1 From specific experiences to perceptual symbols 111 4.4.2 Perceptual symbols, language and language-cognition relations 119 5 Constructions as [form-construal meaning]-associations 126 5.1 Language as a dynamic network of associations 130 5.2 [Form-construal meaning]-associations: Their formation and establishment 132 5.2.1 Building [form-construal meaning]-associations 133 5.2.2 Entrenching [form-construal meaning]-associations 138 5.3 Two competing theories of construal meaning: Schematicity Theory and Differentiality Theory 154 5.4 Construal theory and linguistic relativity 158 5.4.1 Conventionalizing [form-construal meaning]-associations 159 5.4.2 Micro-conventionalization of construal meanings 164 6 Spatial language, cognition and perception: Methods and hypotheses 175 6.1 Construal and language-perception/cognition relations: Methodological considerations 175 6.2 Linguistic and non-linguistic forms of interaction with spatial scenes: Hypotheses 177 7 Experiment 1 – linguistic interaction with spatial scenes: Patterns of language- and speaker-specific variation 182 7.1 German and English spatial language in use I: Previous research 183 7.2 German and English spatial language in use II: A director-matcher language game experiment 187 7.2.1 Method and procedure 187 7.2.2 Data 200 7.2.3 Analytical dimensions and parameters 210 7.2.4 Analysis 1A: Spatial Construction Types (SCTs) 213 7.2.5 Analysis 1B: Object-focusedness Degree Values (ODVs) and frequency distributions of Intermediate Level and Specific Level SCTs 264 7.2.6 Summary and discussion 291 8 Experiment 2 – linguistic and non-linguistic interaction with spatial scenes: The role of cognitive contexts 297 8.1 Methodological and theoretical inspirations from previous research 301 8.2 Hypotheses and general design features 308 8.3 Describing, viewing and remembering spatial scenes: A visual world eye-tracking experiment 310 8.3.1 Pre-test and participant recruitment 311 8.3.2 Main test: Method and procedure 316 8.3.3 Data, analytical categories and steps of analysis 327 8.3.4 Analysis 2A: Variable Speakers/contrast-inducing cognitive contexts 341 8.3.5 Analysis 2B: Consistent Speakers/preference-defined cognitive contexts 373 8.3.6 Summary and discussion (Analyses 2A and 2B) 406 8.4 Analysis 2C: Cognitive context as a determinant of processing strategies? Findings from a post hoc analysis 415 8.4.1 Analysis 2C-1: Patterns of visual attention allocation I (LO-RO Ratio Values) 416 8.4.2 Analysis 2C-2: Patterns of visual attention allocation II (LO-RO Abs Values) 420 8.5 Summary and discussion: Main and post hoc findings (Analyses 2A, 2B and 2C) 424 9 Conclusion: Constructions, cognition, cognitive contexts and beyond 429 9.1 Summary of findings 429 9.2 Limitations and perspectives for future research 432 9.3 Final conclusions 435 References 439 Appendix 479 Author index 493 Topic index 501 The series publishes state-of-the-art work on core areas of linguistics across theoretical frameworks as well as studies that provide new insights by building bridges to neighbouring fields such as neuroscience and cognitive science. The series considers itself a forum for cutting-edge research based on solid empirical data on language in its various manifestations, including sign languages. It regards linguistic variation in its synchronic and diachronic dimensions as well as in its social contexts as important sources of insight for a better understanding of the design of linguistic systems It presents experimental research which identifies language-perception/cognition effects as being highly sensitive to individual-specific patterns of entrenched linguistic knowledge (cognitive contexts). This finding forms the basis of a new, speaker-focused usage-based model of linguistic relativity.