Conservation Agriculture: A Sustainable Approach for Soil Health and Food Security : Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Agriculture

Feeding the increasing global population, which is projected to reach ~10 billion by 2050, there has been increasing demands for more improved/sustainable agricultural management practices that can be followed by farmers to improve productivity without jeopardizing the environment and ecosystem. Indeed, about 95% of our food directly or indirectly comes from soil. It is a precious resource, and sustainable soil management is a critical socio–economic and environmental issue. Maintaining the environmental sustainability while the world is facing resource degradation, increasing climate change and population explosion is the current challenge of every food production sectors. Thus, there is an urgent need to evolve a holistic approach such as conservation agriculture to sustain higher crop productivity in the country without deteriorating soil health. Conservation Agriculture (CA), is a sustainable approach to manage agro–ecosystems in order to improve productivity, increase farm profitabilty and food security and also enhance the resource base and environment. Worldwide, it has been reported various benefits and prospects in adopting CA technologies in different agro-climatic conditions. Yet, CA in arid and semi-arid regions of India and parts of south Asia raises uncertainities due to its extreme climates, large scale residue burning, soil erosion and other constraints such as low water holding capacity, high potential evapotranspiration, etc . Thus, the proposed book has 30 chapters addressing all issues relevant to conservation agriculture/no-till farming system. The book also gives further strengthening existing knowledge in relation to soil physical, chemical and biological processes and health within close proximity of CA as well as machinery requirements. Moreover, the information on carbon (C) sequestration, C credits, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, mitigation of climate change effects and socio-economic view on CA under diverse ecologies namely rainfed, irrigated and hill eco-region is also deliberated. For large scale adoption of CA practices in South Asian region especially in India and other countries need dissemination of best-bet CA technologies for dominant soil types/cropping systems through participatory mode, strong linkages and institutional mechanism and public-private-policy support. We hope this book gives a comprehensive and clear picture about conservation agriculture/no-till farming and its associated problem, challenges, prospects and benefits. This book shall be highly useful reference material to researchers, scientists, students, farmers and land managers for efficient and sustainable management of natural resources. Foreword Preface Contents About the Editors 1: Conservation Agriculture: Issues, Prospects, and Challenges in Rainfed Regions of India 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Conservation Agriculture 1.3 Conservation Tillage 1.4 Key Principles of CA 1.5 Status of Conservation Agriculture 1.6 Challenges in Adoption of Conservation Agriculture 1.7 Rainfed Agriculture Scenario 1.7.1 Residue Burning 1.7.2 Lack of Appropriate Machinery 1.7.3 Weed Management 1.7.4 Difficulty in Input Use 1.7.5 Farmers ́ Perception 1.8 Technological Gaps 1.9 Expected Benefits from Adoption of CA Practices 1.10 Preessential for Adoption of CA 1.11 CA Interventions for Untapped Rainfed Regions 1.12 Conclusions References 2: Strategic or Occasional Tillage: A Promising Option to Manage Limitations of no-Tillage Farming 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Drivers for Occasional Strategic Tillage 2.2.1 Soil- and Stubble-Borne Pathogens 2.2.2 Insect Pests 2.2.3 Herbicide-Resistant Weeds 2.2.4 Stratification of Nutrients and Carbon 2.2.5 Soil Structural Issues 2.3 Effects of Occasional Strategic Tillage on Soil Properties, the Environment, and Crop Agronomy 2.3.1 Soil Hydraulic Properties and Processes 2.3.2 Soil Chemical Properties and Processes 2.3.2.1 Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen 2.3.2.2 Nutrient Stratification 2.3.3 Soil Fauna and Flora 2.3.4 Crop Productivity and Reliability 2.3.5 Crop Reliability in Variable Seasons 2.3.6 Environmental Effects 2.3.6.1 Erosion and Runoff 2.3.6.2 Greenhouse Gas Fluxes 2.3.6.3 Pollution of Water Courses 2.4 Strategic Tillage within the NT Management System: Where, When, and How? 2.4.1 Timing of Tillage Operations 2.4.2 Soil Water Content 2.4.3 Purpose of Tillage 2.4.4 Tillage Implement and Frequency 2.5 Conclusions References 3: No-till Farming: Agronomic Intervention through Cover Cropping for Enhancing Crop Productivity 3.1 Introduction 3.2 ``No-till ́ ́ as a Concept 3.3 No-till and Adoption Incentives 3.4 Crop Yields in Relation to no-till 3.5 Agronomic Interventions for Increasing Crop Productivity in no-till 3.5.1 Sowing into Crop Residues 3.5.2 Cover Cropping Practices 3.6 Cover Crop and its Influence on Crop Yield 3.7 Cover Crop Management 3.8 Crop Rotation 3.9 Conclusions References 4: Inbuilt Mechanisms for Managing Weeds in Conservation Agriculture Systems: A Revisit 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Weed and Weed Seed Ecology Under CA Systems 4.3 CA Components in Weed Management 4.3.1 Principle 1: Tillage Systems 4.3.1.1 No-Till 4.3.1.2 Weed Seed Predation 4.3.1.3 Reduced Tillage 4.3.1.4 Tillage Systems in Cropping Systems 4.3.1.5 Zero Disturbance Systems 4.3.1.6 Reduced/Minimum Disturbance Systems 4.3.2 Principle 2: Cover Crops and Its Residues 4.3.3 Principle 3: Crop Rotation and Diversification 4.4 Conclusions References 5: Conservation Agriculture in Cotton-Based System: Impact on Soil Properties 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Soil Physical Properties 5.1.2 Soil Structure 5.1.3 Bulk Density 5.1.4 Soil Compaction and Penetration Resistance 5.1.5 Infiltration Rate 5.1.6 Soil Erosion 5.2 Soil Chemical Properties 5.2.1 Soil Organic Carbon 5.2.2 Available Nutrients 5.2.3 Stratification of Organic C and Nutrients 5.2.4 Salinity and Sodicity 5.2.5 Soil Biological Properties 5.2.6 Soil Enzyme Activities 5.2.7 Soil Microbial Biomass 5.2.8 Microbial Population, Community Structure, and Diversity 5.2.9 Transgenic Cotton Effects on Soil Biological Properties 5.2.10 Macrofauna 5.3 Conclusions References 6: Impact of Conservation Agriculture and Residue Management on Soil Properties, Crop Productivity Under Pulse-Based Cropping ... 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Crop Yield and System Productivity Under Pulse-Based Cropping Systems in CA 6.3 Impact of CA on Soil Properties in Pulse-Based Cropping Systems 6.3.1 Physical Properties 6.3.1.1 Soil Aggregation 6.3.1.2 Bulk Density and Hydraulic Conductivity 6.3.1.3 Soil Porosity 6.3.2 Chemical Properties 6.3.2.1 Nitrogen Economy 6.3.2.2 Soil pH 6.3.3 Biological Properties 6.4 Soil Health Under Pulse-Based Cropping System in CA 6.5 Conclusions References 7: Impact of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Health and Crop Productivity under Irrigated Ecosystems 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Why Conservation Agriculture? 7.3 Conservation Agriculture: Principles 7.3.1 Minimal Soil Disturbance 7.3.2 Permanent Organic Soil Cover 7.3.3 Diversified Crop Rotation with a Legume 7.4 Global Area under Conservation Agriculture 7.5 Soil Health under Conservation Agriculture 7.5.1 Soil Physical Health/Quality 7.5.1.1 Soil Structure and Aggregation 7.5.1.2 Soil Bulk Density and Penetration Resistance 7.5.1.3 Soil Porosity 7.5.1.4 Hydraulic Conductivity 7.5.1.5 Infiltration and Runoff 7.5.1.6 Least Limiting Water Range (LLWR) 7.5.2 Soil Chemical Health/Quality 7.5.2.1 Soil pH 7.5.2.2 Cation Exchange Capacity 7.5.2.3 Total Organic C, Total N, and C:N 7.5.3 Soil Biological Health/Quality 7.5.3.1 Potentially Mineralizable N (PMN) 7.5.3.2 Soil Microbial Biomass C and N 7.5.3.3 Soil Enzyme Activities 7.5.3.4 Proportion of Labile Organic C and N Fractions in Total Organic C and Total N 7.6 Crop Yield and Resource-Use Efficiency 7.7 Issues Related to Adoption of Conservation Agriculture 7.8 Conclusions References 8: Impact of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Properties and Crop Productivity Under Rice-Fallow Ecology in Eastern India 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Conservation Agriculture in Rice Fallows 8.3 Production Constraints in Rice Fallows 8.3.1 Climatic Variability 8.3.2 Distribution of Rice-Fallow Areas 8.3.3 Challenges of Rice Fallow 8.3.4 Scope for Cultivation of Pulses and Oilseeds in Rice Fallows 8.3.5 Initiated Research and Development Programmes on Pulses and Oilseeds 8.3.6 Strategies for the Production of Pulses and Oilseeds 8.4 Soil Properties 8.5 Soil Moisture Content and Water Use Efficiency 8.6 Soil Moisture Variability in Winter Crops in Rice Fallows 8.7 Crop Productivity 8.8 Conclusions References 9: Exploring Conservation Agricultural Practices in Bundelkhand Region, Central India 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Soils 9.1.2 Climate 9.1.3 Water Resources 9.1.4 Land Use Pattern and Agricultural Land Use 9.2 Conservation Agriculture in the Region 9.2.1 Key Principles of Conservation Agriculture 9.2.1.1 Permanent Soil Cover 9.2.1.2 Minimum Soil Disturbance 9.2.1.3 Crop Rotation 9.2.2 Conservation Agriculture in India and Bundelkhand (History and Current Status) 9.2.3 Need and Importance of Conservation Agriculture for Bundelkhand Region 9.3 Conservation Agriculture Techniques for Bundelkhand Region 9.3.1 Conservation Tillage 9.3.2 Crop Diversification/Rotation 9.3.3 Green Manuring 9.3.4 Vermicompost 9.3.5 In Situ Moisture Conservation 9.3.5.1 Mulching 9.3.5.2 Trenching and Microcatchments 9.3.5.3 Contour Bunding 9.4 Obstacles in the Adoption of CA in Bundelkhand Region 9.5 Conservation Agriculture in Bundelkhand Region: A Way Forward 9.6 Conclusions References 10: Conservation Agriculture in the North Eastern Himalayan Eco-Region of India 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Land Forming/Shaping and Crop Planning/Selection 10.1.2 Conservation Contour Terracing 10.2 CA Approaches for Low Altitude Region 10.3 CA Approaches for Mid-AltitudeRegion 10.4 CA Approaches for High AltitudeRegion 10.5 Adoption Constraints of CA in the Eastern Himalayan Region 10.6 Conclusions References 11: Impact of Conservation Agriculture and Residue Management on Soil Properties Under Sugarcane-Based Cropping Systems 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sugarcane Statistics: Conservation Agriculture Perspective 11.3 Conservation Agriculture for Sugarcane-Based Cropping Systems in India 11.4 Effects of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Health 11.4.1 Physical Properties of Soil 11.4.2 Chemical Properties of Soils 11.4.3 Biological Properties of Soils 11.5 Challenges in the Adoption of CA in Sugarcane-Based Cropping System 11.6 Future Perspective References 12: Can Conservation Agriculture Deliver Its Benefits in Arid Soils?: An Overview 12.1 Conservation Agriculture: Principles and Global Distribution 12.2 Characteristics and Spread of Arid Soils 12.3 Prospects of Adopting CA for Grain Production in Arid Land 12.4 Does CA as a Climate Mitigation Strategy Work the Same in Arid Soils? 12.5 CA in Arid Soil with Limited SOC 12.6 Cover Crops as a Component of CA in Arid Soil 12.7 Effects of Adopting CA on Arid Soil Biology 12.8 CA Effects on Soil Salinity 12.9 Suitability and Challenges of CA in Arid Soils 12.10 A Rotation System of Tillage for Arid Soils 12.11 Conclusions References 13: Conservation Agriculture: Carbon Turnover and Carbon Sequestration for Enhancing Soil Sustainability and Mitigation of Cli... 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Soil Organic Carbon Turnover 13.3 Carbon Sequestration 13.3.1 Soil Management: No-Till 13.3.2 Crop Residue Management 13.3.3 Crop Nutrition Management 13.3.3.1 Fertiliser Management 13.3.3.2 Organic Amendments 13.3.3.3 Soil Amelioration: Salinity, Sodicity and Acidity 13.3.4 Crop Rotation/Diversification/Intensification 13.4 Mitigation of Climate Change 13.5 Perspectives References 14: Soil Carbon Sequestration Through Conservation Tillage and Residue Management 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Large-Scale On-Farm Residue Burning 14.3 Conservation Tillage Versus Conservation Agriculture 14.4 Definitions of Conservation Tillage and Conservation Agriculture 14.5 Conservation Agriculture: The Most Promising Alternate Agriculture 14.6 Crop Residue Management 14.7 Residue Addition Under CA 14.8 Conservation Agriculture and Soil Carbon Sequestration 14.9 Conclusions References 15: Carbon Dynamics Under Conservation Agriculture 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Importance of CA Under Climate Change 15.3 Tillage Effects on Carbon Stocks and Sequestration 15.4 Tillage Effects on Soil Aggregates and Associated Carbon 15.5 Tillage Effects on Soil Carbon Stratification 15.6 Tillage Effects on Carbon Fractions 15.7 Tillage Effects on Soil Respiration and CO2 Emissions 15.8 Tillage Effects on Carbon Footprints 15.9 Conclusions References 16: Impact of Conservation Agriculture on Greenhouse Gas Emission and Its Implications 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Conservation Agriculture and GHG Emission 16.2 Conservation Agriculture: Potential and Challenges 16.2.1 Area Under Conservation Agriculture 16.2.2 Options Available Under RCTs 16.2.3 Rice-Based Production System and RCT/CA 16.2.4 Limitations of Conservation Agriculture 16.2.5 Advantages of Conservation Agriculture 16.3 Conservation Agriculture and GHG Emission: Cropping System-Based Analysis 16.3.1 Rice-Wheat 16.3.2 Rice-Based Cropping Systems (Other than Rice-Wheat) 16.3.2.1 Rice-Pulse/Oil Seed 16.3.3 Maize-Based Conservation Agriculture 16.4 Impact of Components of CA on GHG Emission 16.4.1 Conservation Agriculture: Tillage and GHG Emission 16.4.2 Conservation Agriculture: Residue Management and GHG Emission 16.4.3 Conservation Agriculture: Crop Diversification and GHG Emission 16.4.4 Interaction of Tillage, Crop Rotation, and Crop Residues on GHG Emission 16.5 Conclusion References 17: Responses of Soil Carbon Storage, Compaction, and Biological Properties Under No-Till and Conventional-Till Systems 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Impact of NT on Soil C Storage 17.3 Impact of NT on Soil Compaction 17.4 Impact of NT on Soil Biological Properties 17.5 Summary References 18: Impact of Residue Burning on Soil Biological Properties 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Why Crop Residue Burning Is Practiced by Farmers in India? 18.3 Consequences of Crop Residue Burning 18.4 Alternate to Crop Residue Burning Crop: Some Strategies and Solutions 18.5 Consequences of Crop Residue Burning on Soil Microbial and Biochemical Activities 18.6 Ex Situ Management Options to Abate Burning 18.7 Conservation Agriculture to Avoid Burning and Offshoot Climate Change 18.8 In Situ Decomposition of Crop Residue 18.9 Conclusions References 19: Physical and Hydrological Processes in Soils Under Conservation Tillage in Europe 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Soil Structure: Core to Soil Physical Properties 19.1.2 Soil Structure and Aggregate Dynamics 19.1.3 The Porous System 19.1.4 Methods to Study Soil Structure 19.2 Conservation Tillage Effects in European Biogeographic Regions 19.2.1 Mediterranean Region 19.2.2 Atlantic and West Continental Regions 19.2.3 Boreal Region 19.3 Conclusions References 20: Nutrient Management Strategies in the Climate Change Scenario 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Contribution of Agriculture in Climate Change 20.3 Effect of Climate Change on Soil Properties 20.4 Soil Health a Way Towards New Revolution 20.5 Climate-Smart Nutrient Management Strategies 20.5.1 Conservation Agriculture 20.5.2 Nutrient Management Strategies in Conservation Agriculture 20.5.3 Adoption of Stewardship 4R Principle 20.5.4 Precision Agriculture 20.5.5 Balance Fertilizer Management 20.5.6 Modified Fertilizer Materials to Enhance Nutrient Use Efficiency 20.5.7 Integrated Nutrient Management 20.5.8 Use of Biochar 20.6 Restoration of Degraded Lands 20.7 Conclusions References 21: Use of Herbicide and Its Implications Under No-Till Farming: An Overview 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Advantages of No-Till Farming 21.3 Disadvantages of No-Till Farming 21.4 Fundamental Change in Agricultural Production System 21.4.1 Use of Herbicides and Its Impact in No-Till Farming 21.5 Conclusions References 22: Conservation Agriculture for Carbon Sequestration and Mitigation of Climate Change 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Climate Change, Agriculture, and Conservation Agriculture 22.3 Conservation Agriculture and C Sequestration 22.3.1 Zero Tillage for C Sequestration 22.3.2 Cover Management for C Sequestration 22.3.3 Crop Diversification and Carbon Sequestration 22.4 Conservation Agriculture for Climate Change Mitigation 22.4.1 Zero Tillage 22.4.2 Permanent Soil Cover and GHG Emission 22.4.3 Crop Diversification 22.5 Conclusions References 23: Implication of Different Tillage System on Root System Architecture and Their Environment 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Root System Architecture 23.3 Methodology to Study of the Root System and Characterization 23.4 Root System Architecture and Water Uptake 23.5 Root System Architecture Versus Nutrient Uptake 23.6 Root System Architecture and Tillage System 23.7 Impact of Root System Architecture/Pattern on Carbon Storage 23.8 Conclusions References 24: Conserving Soil and Reverting Land Degradation Through Conservation Practices with Special Emphasis on Natural Resource Co... 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Conservation Practices 24.3 In Situ Conservation Practices for Natural Resource Conservation and Enhancing Crop Productivity 24.4 Ex Situ Conservation Practices for Natural Resource Conservation 24.5 Recycling of Harvested Runoff 24.6 Conclusions References 25: Machinery for Conservation Agriculture: Indian Perspective 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Manual and Animal-Traction Seeders 25.3 Manual Direct Seeder 25.4 Animal-Drawn Planters 25.5 Passive Anti-blocking No-Till Seeders 25.6 Active Anti-blocking No-/Minimum-Till Seeders 25.7 No-/Minimum-Till Seeders Powered by Four-Wheel Tractors 25.8 Passive Anti-blocking No-Till Seeders 25.9 Active Anti-blocking No-/Minimum-Till Seeders 25.10 Indian Scenario 25.11 Conclusions References 26: Conservation Agriculture Improves Soil Health: Major Research Findings from Bangladesh 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Conservation Agriculture Improves Soil Health 26.2.1 Soil Physiological Properties 26.2.1.1 Soil Structure and Aggregation Influence of Tillage Influence of Residue Management Influence of Crop Rotation 26.2.1.2 Soil Porosity Bulk Density and Total Porosity Pore Size Distribution and Pore Continuity 26.2.1.3 Hydraulic Conductivity and Water-Holding Capacity 26.2.1.4 Soil Water Balance Infiltration and Runoff Evaporation Soil Water Content and Plant Available Water 26.2.1.5 Soil Erosion 26.2.1.6 Soil Temperature 26.2.2 Conservation Agriculture Improves Soil Chemical Properties 26.2.2.1 Soil Organic Carbon 26.2.2.2 Soil pH 26.2.2.3 Nutrient Availability Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium and Secondary Nutrients Micronutrients 26.2.2.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 26.2.2.5 Salinity and Sodicity 26.2.3 Conservation Agriculture Influences Soil Microbial Activity 26.2.3.1 Soil Micro-Fauna and Micro-Flora Microbial Community Structure Microbial Biomass Functional Diversity Enzyme Activity Soil-Borne Diseases 26.2.3.2 Soil Meso-Fauna and Macro-Fauna Meso-Fauna Macro-Fauna 26.3 Challenges for Expansion of Conservation Agriculture in Bangladesh 26.3.1 Mind Set-Up and Social Barriers 26.3.2 Small Farm-Holding 26.3.3 Suitable Machinery 26.3.4 Site Specificity and Land Suitability 26.3.5 Policy, Extension Systems, and Institutional Barriers 26.3.6 Level Land 26.3.7 Weed Problem and Yield Reduction 26.3.8 Crop Residue Management 26.3.9 Skilled Manpower on Conservation Agriculture 26.4 How to Overcome the Challenges of CA for Sustainable Crop Production System? 26.5 Conclusion References 27: Conservation Agriculture-Based Sustainable Intensification to Achieve Food, Water and Energy Security While Reducing Farme... 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Materials and Methods 27.2.1 On-Farm Trials Across the EGP 27.2.2 Data Collection and Analysis 27.2.3 Community-Focused Business Models 27.3 Results and Discussion 27.3.1 Performance of CASI and CT 27.3.2 Performance of Different Cropping Systems 27.3.2.1 Cropping System Productivity, Energy Usage, CO2-Equivalent Emissions and Economics 27.3.2.2 Association Between Cropping System Yields, Net Incomes and CO2-Equivalent Emissions 27.3.3 Capacity Building 27.3.4 Community-Focused Business Models 27.3.5 Extending CASI: Enabling Policy Environment Required 27.4 Conclusions References 28: Conservation Agriculture: Next-Generation, Climate Resilient Crop Management Practices for Food Security and Environmental... 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Concept and Prospects of Conservation Agriculture in the Changing Climate 28.3 Conservation Agriculture Enhances Soil Fertility and Productivity 28.3.1 Conservation Agriculture Improves Soil Physical Properties 28.3.2 Conservation Agriculture Enhances Nutrients Status and Availability 28.3.3 Conservation Agriculture Enhances the Activity of Beneficial Living Organisms in the Soil 28.4 Conservation Agriculture Improves Crop Productivity 28.5 Conservation Agriculture Is Cost-Effective and Environmentally Friendly 28.6 Conclusions References 29: Socioeconomic Challenges and Prospects in the Adoption of Conservation Agriculture Practices in India 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion and Adoption of Conservation Agriculture 29.2.1 Rationalisation Based on Diffusion Models 29.2.2 Rationalisation Based on the Progressive Farmer Strategy in Technology Transfer 29.3 Prospects of Conservation Agriculture in India and Possible Challenges in the Diffusion of CA: Experience from other Deve... 29.3.1 Success of CA in the Intensive Rice Systems of Bangladesh 29.3.2 Challenges in the Diffusion of Conservation Agriculture in Smallholder Farms 29.4 Way Forward References 30: Conclusions: Perspectives on Conservation Agriculture References