دانشنامه کامپیوتری علوم فیزیکی و فناوری، نرم‌افزار کامپیوتری

Glossary......Page 1 Brief Description......Page 2 The First Dartmouth Basic......Page 3 A Number is a Number is a Number; that is, there is Only One Kind of Number in Basic......Page 4 Basic Should be Blank Insensitive; That is, a User Should be able to Type in a Program without Regard to Blank Spaces......Page 5 Strings are Added......Page 6 Overlays are Added......Page 7 Personal Computers Appear......Page 8 Multiple Statements on a Line......Page 9 Strings Proliferate......Page 10 Structured Programming......Page 11 Subroutines......Page 12 BASIC Loses Favor......Page 13 Standard BASIC......Page 14 Basic as a Major Application Language......Page 16 References......Page 17 Glossary......Page 18 The Evolution of C and C++......Page 19 Data Types......Page 20 Operators......Page 21 Control Structures......Page 24 Procedures......Page 26 The C Preprocessor......Page 27 Operator-Rich Syntax......Page 28 Explicit Pointer Usage......Page 29 Key C++ Features......Page 30 Function Overloading......Page 31 Classes......Page 32 Inheritance......Page 33 Exceptions......Page 34 Namespaces......Page 35 Standard Template Library......Page 36 Reference......Page 37 Background and Motivation......Page 38 Viruses, Worms, and so Forth......Page 39 Prevention and Detection......Page 40 Conclusion......Page 41 References......Page 42 Glossary......Page 43 Algorithms and Programs......Page 44 Algorithm Design......Page 46 Performance Analysis and Measurement......Page 48 Analysis......Page 49 Measurement......Page 51 Lower Bounds......Page 52 Np-Hard and Np-Complete Problems......Page 53 Nondeterminism......Page 54 NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems......Page 55 Approximation Algorithms......Page 56 Other Heuristics......Page 57 See also the Following Articles......Page 58 References......Page 59 Glossary......Page 60 Introduction......Page 61 Cryptosystems: A Mathematical Definition......Page 62 Types of Attacks and Attackers......Page 63 System Attacks......Page 64 Electronic Codebook Mode (ECB)......Page 65 Counter Mode (CTR)......Page 66 Data Encryption Standard (DES)......Page 67 Differential cryptanalysis......Page 68 Advanced Encryption Standard......Page 69 Public Key Cryptography......Page 70 Probabilistic Encryption......Page 71 An RSA Example......Page 72 Re-encryption attacks and safe primes......Page 73 Key Distribution Andmanagement......Page 74 Public Key Infrastructures......Page 75 References......Page 76 Glossary......Page 77 The Data Mining Process......Page 78 Rule Induction......Page 79 Discovery of Interestingness......Page 80 Uncertainty Handling......Page 81 Inferencing Rules......Page 82 Neural Networks......Page 83 Statistical Techniques......Page 84 Fuzzy Logic......Page 85 Data Manipulation Techniques......Page 86 Advanced Database Technology......Page 87 Distributed Processing......Page 88 Distributed Data Mining......Page 89 Security and Privacy Aspects of Data Mining......Page 90 Business......Page 91 Science......Page 92 Future Developments......Page 93 References......Page 94 Glossary......Page 95 Memory Allocation and Algorithms......Page 97 Hierarchical Data Structures......Page 99 Linear and Indexed Structures......Page 100 Searching and Sorting Techniques......Page 102 Searching: Algorithms and Data Structures......Page 103 Example (Pictures)......Page 104 Randomness, Order, and Selectivity......Page 105 References......Page 107 Glossary......Page 108 Data Models......Page 109 The Relational Data Model......Page 110 Object-Oriented Data Models......Page 111 Object-Relational Data Models......Page 114 Relational Database Languages......Page 115 Object-Oriented Database Languages......Page 116 Deductive Databases......Page 117 Active Databases......Page 119 Distributed Databases......Page 120 Data Warehouses......Page 122 References......Page 123 Glossary......Page 124 Solution Landscapes......Page 125 Evolutionary Algorithms......Page 127 Genetic Algorithms......Page 128 Genetic Programming......Page 129 Initial Population......Page 130 Evolutionary Programming......Page 131 Evolutionary Strategies......Page 132 Grammatical Evolution......Page 133 Simulated Annealing......Page 134 Memetic Algorithms......Page 135 References......Page 136 Glossary......Page 137 Introduction......Page 138 Quantization......Page 139 Compression......Page 140 Difference Coding and Transform Coding......Page 141 Recent Trends......Page 142 Grayscale Modification......Page 143 Blur Reduction......Page 145 Noise Cleaning......Page 147 Deconvolution......Page 148 Reconstruction......Page 149 Template Matching......Page 152 Image Registration......Page 153 Stereomapping and Range Sensing......Page 154 Image Sequence Analysis......Page 156 Shape from Shading......Page 158 Shape from Shape......Page 159 Feature Detection......Page 160 Region Extraction......Page 162 Geometry-Based Decomposition......Page 165 Subset Representation......Page 166 Properties and Relations......Page 167 Relational Structures and Recognition......Page 168 Knowledge-Based Recognition Systems......Page 169 Meshes......Page 170 References......Page 171 Glossary......Page 173 Variety of Applications, Ties with the Computer Technology. Vast Bibliography. Packages of Subroutines......Page 174 General and Special Linear Systems. Direct and Iterative Methods. Sensitivity to Errors......Page 175 Solving a Differential Equation......Page 176 Hitchcock Transportation Problem. Linear Programming Problem......Page 177 Approximating Data by Curves. Overdetermined Linear Systems. Normal Equations, Reduction to Linear Programming Problems......Page 178 Solving Triangular Systems by Back Substitution......Page 180 Forward Elimination Stage of Gaussian Elimination......Page 181 Gaussian Elimination Performed with Finite Precision. Pivoting Policies. Complete Pivoting for Singular Systems......Page 183 Block Matrix Algorithms......Page 184 Some Modifications of LU Factorization. Choleski’s Factorization. Block Factorizations of a Matrix......Page 185 Error and Residual Vectors. Vector and Matrix Norms. Condition Number......Page 186 Sensitivity of Algorithms for Linear Systems to Round-Off Errors......Page 187 Application to Overdetermined Systems......Page 188 Computing the Minimum 2-Norm Solution to an Underdetermined System......Page 189 Asymptotic and Practical Accelerations of Solving General Linear Systems......Page 190 Banded, Block-Banded, Banded-Symmetric, and Symmetric Systems......Page 191 Toeplitz, Hankel, and Vandermonde Systems and Their Correlation to Polynomial Operations......Page 192 Some Policies of Pivoting for Sparse Systems......Page 193 Iterative Algorithms for Sparse and Special Dense Linear Systems......Page 194 Influence of the Development of Vector and Parallel Computers on Solving Linear Systems......Page 196 References......Page 197 Glossary......Page 198 Where Operating Systems are Required......Page 199 Functions of an Operating System......Page 200 Starting Up......Page 201 Simple Process Management......Page 202 Managing process execution......Page 203 Scheduling......Page 204 Processor scheduling......Page 205 Real-time considerations.......Page 206 Contention for resources......Page 207 Single application processes......Page 208 Simple paging......Page 209 Combined segmentation and paging......Page 210 General Introduction......Page 211 Contiguous space allocation methods......Page 213 Indexed block chaining......Page 214 Organizing Data for Access......Page 215 Two-level directories......Page 216 Data Protection and Integrity......Page 217 Delay and Failure......Page 218 References......Page 219 See also the Following Articles......Page 220 Glossary......Page 221 Application Areas......Page 222 Closed-World Assumption......Page 223 Conjunctions......Page 224 Unification and Logical Variables......Page 225 Horn Clauses......Page 226 Lists......Page 227 Example: Permutations......Page 228 Position and Associativity......Page 229 True and Fail......Page 230 Repeat......Page 231 Input/Output for Terms......Page 232 Arithmetic......Page 233 Manipulating Structured Terms......Page 234 Term Comparison......Page 235 Arguments of Nonterminals and Mixing Grammar Rules and Prolog Code......Page 236 A Grammar Example......Page 237 Meta-level Programming......Page 238 Introduction......Page 239 Imposing Constraints on Variables......Page 240 Labeling Domain Variables......Page 241 Rectangle with Maximum Area......Page 242 References......Page 243 Glossary......Page 245 Activity Networks......Page 247 The Need for Defined Development Life Cycles......Page 248 The Incremental Model......Page 249 Rapid Application Development......Page 250 Creating the Project Team......Page 251 Configuration Management......Page 252 Prioritizing Risk......Page 253 A Taxonomy of Software Effort Estimation Methods......Page 254 COCOMO: An Example of an Algorithmic Model......Page 255 Function Points......Page 256 Reviews, Inspections, and Walkthroughs......Page 257 Quality Plans......Page 258 References......Page 259 Glossary......Page 260 System Model......Page 261 Interface Definition......Page 262 Computational Model......Page 263 Formal Modeling and Verification......Page 264 Introduction......Page 265 Fault Tolerance with Global Time......Page 266 Fault Tolerance without Global Time......Page 267 Conclusion......Page 268 References......Page 269 Introduction......Page 270 Agreeing Requirements......Page 271 Requirements to Elicit......Page 272 Enterprise Modeling......Page 273 Context and Groundwork......Page 274 Summary and Conclusions......Page 275 References......Page 276 Glossary......Page 278 Historical Perspective......Page 279 Board-to-Board......Page 280 Smart Imaging and Vision Chips......Page 281 Monolithic vs. Hybrid......Page 282 Optical Output......Page 283 Flip-chip bonding.......Page 284 Wafer fusion.......Page 285 Performance......Page 286 Functionality......Page 287 Fabricated smart pixel arrays......Page 288 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems MEMS......Page 290 Redundancy Based on Reconfiguration......Page 291 References......Page 292 Glossary......Page 293 A Brief History of Software Engineering......Page 294 Application Software......Page 295 The Software Life Cycle......Page 296 The Waterfall Model......Page 297 Spiral Model......Page 298 Process Quality......Page 299 Requirements Engineering......Page 300 Software Architecture......Page 301 Software Design and Specification......Page 302 Testing......Page 303 Reviews and Inspections......Page 304 Management of Software Engineering......Page 305 References......Page 306 Glossary......Page 307 Software Maintenance......Page 308 Models and Process in Software Maintenance......Page 309 Level 1, The System Level......Page 310 Level 2, The Function Level......Page 312 Level 3, The Data Level......Page 313 General Recommendations......Page 315 References......Page 316 Glossary......Page 317 Usage and Reliability Modeling......Page 318 Purpose......Page 319 Algorithmic Model......Page 320 Grammar Model......Page 321 State Hierarchy Model......Page 322 Derivation of Usage Data......Page 323 Failure and Test Data......Page 324 Definitions......Page 325 Time between Failure Models......Page 326 Failure Count Models......Page 327 Reliability Demonstration......Page 328 Purpose......Page 329 Summary......Page 330 References......Page 331 The Input Domain......Page 332 The Internal Structure......Page 333 The Development of Testing Methods......Page 334 A General Strategy for Testing......Page 335 System Testing......Page 336 Functional Testing Techniques......Page 337 References......Page 338 Glossary......Page 339 The Way the Web Works......Page 340 Universal Resource Identifier URL......Page 342 HyperText Transfer Protocol HTTP......Page 344 HyperText Markup Language HTML......Page 346 References......Page 349