Comprehensive Biomedical Physics. Volume 1. Nuclear Medicine And Molecular Imaging; Volume 2. X-ray And Ultrasound Imaging; Volume 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging And Spectroscopy; Volume 4. Optical Molecular Imaging; Volume 5. Physics Of Physiological Meas

Comprehensive Biomedical Physics, Vol. 1-10 Title Page ISBN (print): 9780444536327 EDITORIAL BOARD CONTENTS Volume 1 Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Volume 2 X-Ray and Ultrasound Imaging Volume 3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy Volume 4 Optical Molecular Imaging Volume 5 Physics of Physiological Measurements Volume 6 Bioinformatics Volume 7 Radiation Biology and Radiation Safety Volume 8 Radiation Sources and Detectors Volume 9 Radiation Therapy Physics and Treatment Optimization Volume 10 Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation PREFACE Volume 1: NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING Title Page CONTRIBUTORS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 1: NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING 1.01 History of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Glossary 1.01.1 Introduction 1.01.2 Discoveries of the Early 1900s That Underpin Nuclear Medicine 1.01.3 Earliest Radiation Detection Systems 1.01.4 Contemporary Photon Detectors 1.01.5 Scintillation Detector Materials 1.01.6 Two-Dimensional Gamma Scanners and Cameras 1.01.7 Three-Dimensional Imaging 1.01.8 Image Processing and Data Analysis 1.01.9 Radionuclide Production 1.01.10 Radiotracer Syntheses Instrumentation 1.01.11 Hazards and Absorbed Radiation Doses 1.01.12 Selected Applications 1.01.13 Molecular Imaging, Born in Mid-1990s 1.01.14 Short History of Organizational Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging 1.01.15 Future Expectations Appendix A Major Steps in the Chronology of Nuclear Medicine and Nuclear Molecular Imaging Appendix B Acknowledgments References Further Reading 1.02 Single-Photon Radionuclide Imaging and SPECT Abbreviations 1.02.1 Introduction 1.02.2 Instrumentation 1.02.3 Acquisition Modes and Image Formation 1.02.4 Imaging Procedures References 1.03 Dynamic Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography Glossary Preface 1.03.1 Introduction 1.03.2 Principles of Tracer Kinetic Modeling 1.03.3 Spatiotemporal Modeling of Dynamic Image Data 1.03.4 Summary Appendix A1 Solving One- and Two-Compartment Models Using Laplace Transforms Acknowledgments References 1.04 Scatter Correction in SPECT Glossary 1.04.1 Introduction 1.04.2 Source of Scattered Photons 1.04.3 Impact of Scatter on Reconstructed Slices 1.04.4 Ways to Lessen the Amount of Scatter Acquired 1.04.5 Goal of and Dilemma for SC Strategies 1.04.6 Energy Spectrum-Based SC Strategies 1.04.7 Spatial Domain-Based SC Acknowledgments References 1.05 Compton Emission Tomography 1.05.1 Limitations of Mechanical Collimation in SPECT 1.05.2 Compton Cameras Use Electronic Collimation to Determine Cones of Origin 1.05.3 Back Projection of Compton Cones Is Useful for Locating Discrete Sources 1.05.4 Escaping Photons and the Compton Continuum 1.05.5 Analyzing a Recorded Event 1.05.6 Compton Image Reconstruction 1.05.7 Uncertainties in Compton Camera Measurements 1.05.8 Compton Camera Instrumentation 1.05.9 Future Perspectives Acknowledgment References 1.06 Positron Emission Tomography Glossary 1.06.1 Introduction 1.06.2 Basics of Positron Decay 1.06.3 Making an Image – Overview 1.06.4 Primary Detection 1.06.5 Decoding 1.06.6 Real-Time Detector Corrections 1.06.7 Detector Corrections Applied During Image Reconstruction 1.06.8 Basic Image Reconstruction References 1.07 Time-of-Flight Positron Emission Tomography* Glossary 1.07.1 Introduction 1.07.2 Basics of TOF PET 1.07.3 Brief History of TOF PET 1.07.4 Timing Basics 1.07.5 Optimizing Timing Resolution in PET 1.07.6 Conclusions References 1.08 Time-of-Flight PET Reconstruction Strategies Glossary 1.08.1 Introduction 1.08.2 Basics of TOF-PET Reconstruction 1.08.3 3D TOF-PET Reconstruction Algorithms 1.08.4 Data Corrections 1.08.5 Impact of TOF-PET Reconstruction References 1.09 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)/Computer Tomography (CT) Glossary Abbreviation 1.09.1 Introduction to Positron Emission Tomography/Computer Tomography Imaging 1.09.2 Design Features of PET/CT Systems 1.09.3 Attenuation Correction in PET/CT 1.09.4 PET/CT-Specific Artifacts and Corrections 1.09.5 Dosimetry 1.09.6 PET/CT in Clinical Applications 1.09.7 Conclusion References 1.10 High-Resolution Small Animal Imaging Abbreviation 1.10.1 Introduction 1.10.2 Small Animal PET Using MWPC 1.10.3 Animal Models 1.10.4 Applications 1.10.5 Conclusion References 1.11 Emission Tomography Motion Compensation Glossary 1.11.1 Introduction 1.11.2 Motion in PET and SPECT 1.11.3 Motion Types and Effects 1.11.4 Monitoring Methods 1.11.5 Motion Compensation 1.11.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 1.12 Tracer Kinetic Models in PET 1.12.1 Introduction 1.12.2 Compartmental Models 1.12.3 Input Functions and the Tissue Response 1.12.4 K1, k2, Blood Flow, and Extraction 1.12.5 The Blood Flow Model 1.12.6 Glucose Metabolism in the Brain 1.12.7 Neuroreceptor Model 1.12.8 Occupancy of Receptor Sites Measured Using PET 1.12.9 The General PET Compartmental Model 1.12.10 Summary Appendix References 1.13 Absorbed Radiation Dose Assessment from Radionuclides Glossary Abbreviations 1.13.1 Introduction 1.13.2 The MIRD Schema 1.13.3 Facilitation and Limitations of Absorbed Dose Estimates 1.13.4 Dosimetry and Absorbed Dose Definitions 1.13.5 Summary Appendix A Conversions Between Traditional to SI Units Appendix B Unusual Case for Dose Estimate of Ingested Polonium-210 Appendix C Example of Pu-239 Residual from Tissue Samples References Volume 2: X-RAY AND ULTRASOUND IMAGING Title Page CONTRIBUTORS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 2: X-RAY AND ULTRASOUND IMAGING 2.01 Physical Basis of x-Ray Imaging Glossary 2.01.1 Introductory Concepts 2.01.2 Interaction Processes 2.01.3 x-Ray Tubes and Beam Quality in Diagnostic Radiology 2.01.4 Examples of x-Ray Image Formation and Contrast Mechanisms Acknowledgments References Relevant Websites 2.02 Physical Parameters of Image Quality Glossary 2.02.1 Introduction 2.02.2 Spatial Resolution 2.02.3 Noise 2.02.4 Contrast 2.02.5 SNR and Rose Model 2.02.6 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio and Contrast-Detail Analysis References 2.03 Computed Tomography Glossary 2.03.1 Introduction 2.03.2 The Concept of Tomography 2.03.3 From Projections to Slices 2.03.4 Evolution of CT Technology 2.03.5 Physical Limitations of CT Imaging 2.03.6 Protocol Optimization for Specialized Clinical Applications References 2.04 Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology Glossary Abbreviations 2.04.1 x-Ray Sources for Intraoral Radiography 2.04.2 Detectors for Intraoral Radiography 2.04.3 Panoramic Radiography 2.04.4 Cephalometric Radiography 2.04.5 Cone Beam Volumetric Imaging References 2.05 Breast Imaging Glossary Abbreviations 2.05.1 Requirements for Early Detection of Breast Cancer 2.05.2 x-Ray Sources 2.05.3 Digital Detectors 2.05.4 Mammography Equipment 2.05.5 Image Display 2.05.6 Digital Breast Tomosynthesis 2.05.7 Advanced Applications References 2.06 Dual-Energy and Spectral Imaging Glossary 2.06.1 Basic Theory (see also Chapter 2.01) 2.06.2 Current Clinical Implementations 2.06.3 Preclinical Dual-Energy and Spectral Imaging Implementations (see also Chapter 8.18) 2.06.4 Image Noise, Contrast, and Dose Considerations References 2.07 Quality Controls in x-Ray Imaging Glossary 2.07.1 Introduction 2.07.2 QC for Radiology Equipment 2.07.3 QCs in CR and DR Systems 2.07.4 QCs of Mammography System 2.07.5 QCs of Dental Radiology Equipment 2.07.6 QCs in Digital Angiography 2.07.7 QC of CT Equipment 2.07.8 Summary of Periodicity of QCs References 2.08 x-Ray Imaging with Coherent Sources Glossary 2.08.1 Introduction 2.08.2 Phase-Sensitive Techniques for x-Ray Imaging 2.08.3 Phase Retrieval and Post-Processing 2.08.4 Open Challenges and Future Perspectives References 2.09 High-Resolution CT for Small-Animal Imaging Research Glossary 2.09.1 Introduction 2.09.2 Fundamentals of Micro-CT Design 2.09.3 Reconstruction Algorithms 2.09.4 Image Quality 2.09.5 Applications of Small-Animal Micro-CT 2.09.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 2.10 Radiation Protection and Dosimetry in x-Ray Imaging Glossary 2.10.1 Introduction 2.10.2 The ICRP Framework for Radiological Protection 2.10.3 Dosimetric Quantities Relevant for Planar x-Ray Imaging 2.10.4 Dosimetric Quantities Relevant for CT Imaging 2.10.5 Dosimetry in Practice Appendix Most Commonly Used Dosimeters References Relevant Websites 2.11 Fundamentals of CT Reconstruction in 2D and 3D Glossary Abbreviations 2.11.1 Introduction 2.11.2 Radon Transform in 2D 2.11.3 Back Projection 2.11.4 Radon Transform Inversion 2.11.5 Practical Back Projection 2.11.6 Sinogram Restoration 2.11.7 Sampling Considerations 2.11.8 Linogram Reconstruction 2.11.9 2D Fan-Beam Tomography 2.11.10 3D Cone-Beam Reconstruction 2.11.11 Iterative Image Reconstruction 2.11.12 Summary and Future Trends References Relevant Websites 2.12 The Basics of Ultrasound Glossary 2.12.1 Introduction 2.12.2 US Propagation in an Ideal Fluid 2.12.3 US Propagation in a Nonideal Fluid 2.12.4 Pulse-Echo Imaging 2.12.5 Final Remarks References Relevant Websites 2.13 Ultrasound Imaging Arrays Glossary 2.13.1 Introduction 2.13.2 Array Transducers 2.13.3 Beam Profile 2.13.4 Apodization 2.13.5 Beam Processing 2.13.6 Echography: Reflection and Backscattering Imaging 2.13.7 Image Quality 2.13.8 Plane Wave Imaging (Ultrafast US Imaging) 2.13.9 Synthetic Aperture Imaging References 2.14 Doppler Ultrasound Nomenclature Abbreviations 2.14.1 Introduction 2.14.2 Continuous-Wave Doppler 2.14.3 Pulsed-Wave Doppler 2.14.4 Color Doppler Imaging 2.14.5 Vector Velocity Imaging 2.14.6 Recent Developments in Ultrasound Imaging of Blood Flow References 2.15 Ultrasound Imaging Modalities Glossary 2.15.1 Introduction 2.15.2 Reflection Imaging 2.15.3 Nonlinear Imaging 2.15.4 Quantitative Imaging 2.15.5 Emerging Imaging Modalities References 2.16 Nonlinear Acoustics Glossary 2.16.1 Introduction 2.16.2 Plane Waves in Nonlinear Lossless and Lossy Media 2.16.3 Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Equations 2.16.4 Harmonic Imaging References 2.17 Biomedical Applications of Ultrasound Glossary Abbreviations 2.17.1 Introduction 2.17.2 Clinical Diagnostic Pathways: The Old and the New 2.17.3 From Planar Through Tomographic, to Multidimensional Imaging 2.17.4 US in Clinical Practice: Advantages and Disadvantages 2.17.5 Brief Historical Notes and Modern Ideas 2.17.6 Why and How US Imaging Works 2.17.7 Probes and Transducers 2.17.8 Usual Application of US in Medicine 2.17.9 M-Mode and B-Mode Sonography 2.17.10 Basic Principles of Clinical US 2.17.11 Ultrasound Anatomy 2.17.12 Other Practical Applications of Clinical US 2.17.13 Operative Ultrasound 2.17.14 Doppler US 2.17.15 Doppler US for Hemodynamic Evaluation 2.17.16 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound 2.17.17 Elastography 2.17.18 The Physical Basis of Aerated Organs US Imaging 2.17.19 New Applications: Lung US and Integrated US Imaging 2.17.20 Conclusion References 2.18 Biological Effects in Diagnostic Ultrasound Glossary 2.18.1 Introduction 2.18.2 DUS Exposimetry and Dosimetry 2.18.3 Heating and Thermal Bioeffects in DUS 2.18.4 Nonthermal Tissue Interaction and Bioeffects in DUS 2.18.5 Bioeffects Associated with Gas-Body Activation and Cavitation in DUS 2.18.6 Critical Discussion of Bioeffects in DUS References 2.19 Simulation of Ultrasound Fields Nomenclature Operators Parameters and Functions 2.19.1 Introduction 2.19.2 Basic Acoustic Equations 2.19.3 Semianalytical Methods 2.19.4 Numerical Methods for Linear Ultrasound Fields 2.19.5 Numerical Methods for Nonlinear Ultrasound Fields References Relevant Websites 2.20 Ultrasound Research Platforms Glossary 2.20.1 Introduction 2.20.2 General Characteristics of an Ideal Platform 2.20.3 State of the Art of Research Platforms 2.20.4 Detailed Architecture of Sample Platforms 2.20.5 Innovative Applications of Open Platforms 2.20.6 Discussion References Relevant Websites Volume 3: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY Title Page CONTRIBUTORS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 3: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY 3.01 Fundamentals of MR Imaging Glossary Nomenclature Symbols Variables 3.01.1 Introduction 3.01.2 MRI Equipment 3.01.3 Basic Theory of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 3.01.4 Relaxation 3.01.5 Basic Pulse Sequences 3.01.6 Image Formation 3.01.7 Advanced Pulse Sequences 3.01.8 Parallel and Non-Cartesian Imaging References 3.02 Image Contrast and Resolution in MRI Glossary Nomenclature 3.02.1 Introduction to Spatial Resolution 3.02.2 Magnetic Field Gradients and Spatial Encoding 3.02.3 Slice Selection 3.02.4 Gradient Strength and Image Resolution 3.02.5 SNR Considerations 3.02.6 NMR Microscopy 3.02.7 Introduction to Image Contrast 3.02.8 T1-Weighted MRI 3.02.9 Suppression of T1 Components (Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery, Short TI Inversion Recovery, and Double-Inversion Reco 3.02.10 T2-Weighted MRI 3.02.11 Susceptibility Contrast 3.02.12 Functional MRI 3.02.13 Other Contrast Mechanisms 3.02.14 Contrast Agents References Relevant Websites 3.03 Perfusion Imaging and Hyperpolarized Agents for MRI Glossary Nomenclature 3.03.1 Introduction 3.03.2 Perfusion Imaging 3.03.3 Hyperpolarized Agents References Further Reading 3.04 High Versus Low Static Magnetic Fields in MRI Glossary Nomenclature 3.04.1 Introduction 3.04.2 Characteristics of Increasing Static Magnetic Fields 3.04.3 Some Consequences for Selected MR Applications 3.04.4 Discussion References 3.05 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Glossary Abbreviations 3.05.1 From Neural Activity to the BOLD Signal – The Physiological Basis of fMRI 3.05.2 fMRI Methodology 3.05.3 From Research to Clinic – Clinical Use of fMRI 3.05.4 Conclusions References Relevant Websites 3.06 Diffusion-Weighted MRI Glossary Nomenclature 3.06.1 Introduction 3.06.2 Diffusion Process and Scalar DW Imaging 3.06.3 Diffusion Tensor Imaging 3.06.4 q-Space, Diffusion Spectroscopy, and Imaging 3.06.5 HARDI and Beyond 3.06.6 Structural Connectivity Inference and Applications 3.06.7 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Relevant Websites 3.07 MRI of the Brain Glossary Nomenclature 3.07.1 Introduction 3.07.2 MR-Based Modalities for Assessing Brain Anatomy 3.07.3 MRI in Normal Brain Development 3.07.4 MRI in Normal Brain Aging 3.07.5 MRI of the Brain in Pathologic Conditions 3.07.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 3.08 MRI of the Cardiovascular System Glossary Abbreviations 3.08.1 Introduction 3.08.2 Special Considerations and Challenges of CMR 3.08.3 Techniques and Sequences Used for CMR 3.08.5 Future Trends in CMR References Relevant Websites 3.09 MRI of the Liver Glossary Abbreviations 3.09.1 T1-Weighted Sequences 3.09.2 T2-Weighted Sequences 3.09.3 Gadolinium-Enhanced T1-Weighted Sequences 3.09.4 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Contrast Agent 3.09.5 Artifacts 3.09.6 Liver Protocol 3.09.7 General Considerations of MRI of the Liver at 3 T 3.09.8 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the Liver 3.09.9 Noncooperative Patients 3.09.10 Emerging Developments in MRI References Relevant Website 3.10 MRI of the Pancreas and Kidney Glossary Abbreviations 3.10.1 Introduction 3.10.2 Techniques 3.10.3 MRI of the Pancreas 3.10.4 MRI of the Kidney 3.10.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 3.11 MRI of the Small and Large Bowel Glossary Abbreviations 3.11.1 General Issues in Small Bowel Imaging 3.11.2 MRI of the SB: Technical Aspects 3.11.3 Clinical Applications 3.11.4 MRI of the Large Bowel 3.11.5 MR Colonography: Technical Aspects 3.11.6 Indications for MR Colonography 3.11.7 MRI of the Small and Large Bowel: Conclusions References 3.12 MR Imaging of the Prostate Glossary Abbreviations 3.12.1 Introduction 3.12.2 Equipment 3.12.3 MRI Examination for Prostate Cancer 3.12.4 Role of MRI in Prostate Cancer 3.12.5 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Prostate 3.12.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 3.13 MRI of the Breast Glossary Abbreviations 3.13.1 Introduction 3.13.2 Special MRI Techniques for Breast Imaging 3.13.3 Basic Breast Pathology 3.13.4 MRI of Nonmalignant, Nontumorous Breast Lesions 3.13.5 MRI of Benign Breast Tumors 3.13.6 MRI of Malignant Breast Tumors 3.13.7 Dynamic MRI 3.13.8 DWI of Breast Tumors 3.13.9 Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging for Microcalcifications 3.13.10 Biological Correlation 3.13.11 Clinical Applications 3.13.12 Conclusion References 3.14 MRI of the Female Genitourinary Tract Glossary Abbreviations 3.14.1 Introduction 3.14.2 Normal Anatomy 3.14.3 MRI Techniques in the Female Pelvis 3.14.4 Pathologies of Uterus 3.14.5 Adnexal Disease 3.14.6 Conclusion References 3.15 Three-Dimensional Multispectral MRI for Patients with Metal Implants Glossary 3.15.1 Introduction 3.15.2 Theory 3.15.3 Application of 3D-MSI Methods 3.15.4 Discussion 3.15.5 Conclusions References 3.16 Fundamentals of MR Spectroscopy Glossary Nomenclature and Symbols 3.16.1 Basic Concepts 3.16.2 Nuclei that Can Be Used for MRS 3.16.3 Key Methodologies 3.16.4 Complexities and Caveats References Further Reading Relevant Website 3.17 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) of the Brain Glossary Abbreviations 3.17.1 Introduction 3.17.2 Neurodegenerative Diseases 3.17.3 Psychiatric Disorders 3.17.4 Somatoform Disorders 3.17.5 Vascular Disorders 3.17.6 Intracranial Neoplasms 3.17.8 Demyelinating Diseases 3.17.9 Developmental Disorders 3.17.10 Epilepsy 3.17.11 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 3.18 MR Spectroscopy (MRS) of the Prostate Glossary Abbreviations 3.18.1 Introduction 3.18.2 Prostate Cancer 3.18.3 MRS of the Prostate 3.18.4 Clinical Applications of MRS for Prostate Cancer 3.18.5 Summary Acknowledgments References 3.19 MRS of the Breast Glossary Abbreviations 3.19.1 Introduction 3.19.2 1H-MRS and the Choline Signal in the Diagnosis of Breast Cancer 3.19.3 Monitoring Response to Neoadjuvant Systemic Therapy with MRI and 1H-MRS 3.19.4 Technical Aspects 3.19.5 In Situ 31P-MRS of Breast Cancer 3.19.6 Future Directions – Hyperpolarized 13C Choline Imaging and Spectroscopy Acknowledgments References 3.20 Potential and Obstacles of MRS in the Clinical Setting Glossary Abbreviations 3.20.1 Introduction 3.20.2 Some Basics Concerning MRS in the Clinical Setting 3.20.3 Conventional Approaches to Processing Localized Spectra 3.20.4 Obstacles Related to Fourier-Based Analysis and Postprocessing Fitting 3.20.5 What Do Clinicians Expect from MRS? 3.20.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Further Reading 3.21 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging Glossary Nomenclature 3.21.1 Introduction 3.21.2 Multiple Types of Imaging Based on the Chemical Shift 3.21.3 Theory 3.21.4 Technology 3.21.5 Quantification 3.21.6 Applications in Humans 3.21.7 Other Applications 3.21.8 Problems of MRSI 3.21.9 Conclusions References 3.22 Clinical Applications of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging Glossary Abbreviations 3.22.1 Introduction 3.22.2 Diagnosis/Detection 3.22.3 Grading/Assessment of Aggressiveness 3.22.4 Treatment Selection/Response Assessment/Prognosis 3.22.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 3.23 In Vivo Two-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Glossary Nomenclature 3.23.1 Introduction 3.23.2 Basics of 2D MRS 3.23.3 Modeling a Single Isolated Spin 1/2 System 3.23.4 Modeling a Weakly Coupled Spin-Pair System 3.23.5 2D Localized Correlated Spectroscopy 3.23.6 Clinical Applications of Single Voxel 2D L-COSY MRS 3.23.7 Other Sequences in Single Voxel 2D MRS 3.23.8 Multivoxel 2D MRS 3.23.9 Quantification in 2D MRS 3.23.10 Future Directions Acknowledgments References 3.24 Basic Science Input into Clinical MR Modalities Glossary Abbreviations 3.24.1 Introduction 3.24.2 Metabolic Biomarkers of Breast Cancer – MRS of Choline Metabolism 3.24.3 Sodium MRI of Renal Function 3.24.4 Final Comments Acknowledgments References 3.25 Mathematically Optimized MR Reconstructions Glossary Abbreviations 3.25.1 Introduction 3.25.2 Standard Versus Advanced Signal Processing Methods in MR 3.25.3 Results of the FPT Within 1D MRS 3.25.4 Other Applications of the FPT Within MR 3.25.5 Perspectives Acknowledgments References Further Reading 3.26 Interdisciplinarity of MR and Future Perspectives with a Focus on Screening Glossary Nomenclature 3.26.1 Introduction 3.26.2 Challenges Entailed in the Interdisciplinarity of MR 3.26.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of MR with a Focus on Screening 3.26.4 Outlooks for the Future of MR with a Focus on Timely Cancer Diagnosis 3.26.5 Conclusion: Public Health and Policy Implications Acknowledgments References Further Reading Relevant Websites Volume 4: OPTICAL MOLECULAR IMAGING Title page CONTRIBUTORS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 4: OPTICAL MOLECULAR IMAGING 4.01 Bio-optical Imaging Glossary Nomenclature 4.01.1 Introduction 4.01.2 Light Produced by Living Organisms 4.01.3 How Do Living Organisms Produce Light? 4.01.4 So What Exactly is Bioluminescence? 4.01.5 Functions of Bioluminescence 4.01.6 Types of Bioluminescence, Bioluminescent Organs, and Control of the Light Emission 4.01.7 Fluorescence 4.01.8 Luminescence Science: From Past to Present 4.01.9 Conclusion References 4.02 Signal-Relevant Properties of Fluorescent Labels and Optical Probes and Their Determination Glossary Abbreviations 4.02.1 Introduction 4.02.2 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 4.03 Fluorescent Proteins Glossary 4.03.1 The Green Fluorescent Protein Nude Mouse 4.03.2 The Nestin-Driven GFP Nude Mouse 4.03.3 The RFP Nude Mouse 4.03.4 The CFP Nude Mouse 4.03.5 Cancer Cells Expressing GFP in the Nucleus and RFP in the Cytoplasm 4.03.6 Imaging the Recruitment of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts by Liver-Metastatic Colon Cancer 4.03.7 Multicolored Stroma to Image Interaction with Cancer Cells 4.03.8 Making Patient Primary Tumors Glow in Nude Mice by Coloring the Stroma with Fluorescent Proteins 4.03.9 Making Metastasis from Patient Tumors Glow in Nude Mice by Coloring the Stroma with GFP 4.03.10 Non-invasive Imaging of Orthotopic Pancreatic-Cancer-Patient Tumors Colored by GFP and RFP Stroma in Nude Mice 4.03.11 Color-Coded Real-Time Subcellular Fluorescence Imaging of the Interaction between Cancer and Stromal Cells in Live Mice 4.03.12 Non-invasive Subcellular Multicolor Imaging of Cancer Cell-Stromal Cell Interaction and Drug Response in Real Time 4.03.13 Stromal Cells are Necessary for Cancer Cells to Metastasize 4.03.14 Visualizing Stromal Cell Dynamics by Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy 4.03.15 Conclusions Dedication References 4.04 Fluorescent Nanoparticles Glossary 4.04.1 Introduction to Luminescence 4.04.2 Materials and Synthesis 4.04.3 Specific Aspects for Medical Use References 4.05 Molecular Imaging Probes: Activatable and Sensing Probes Glossary 4.05.1 Introduction 4.05.2 Activation Strategies 4.05.3 Photochemical Aspects of Probe Activation 4.05.4 Targeting Moieties 4.05.5 Molecular Imaging Applications 4.05.6 Summary References Relevant Website 4.06 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Probes Glossary Abbreviations 4.06.1 Introduction 4.06.2 The Principle of Resonance Energy Transfer 4.06.3 Design of FRET Pairs 4.06.4 FRET Applications 4.06.5 Intramolecular and Intermolecular FRET 4.06.6 Methods to Detect FRET 4.06.7 Conclusion References 4.07 Multimodal Optical Imaging Probes Glossary 4.07.1 Introduction 4.07.2 Multimodal Optical Imaging Probes 4.07.3 Discussion 4.07.4 Conclusion References 4.08 Fluorescent Reporters and Optical Probes Glossary Abbreviations 4.08.1 Introduction 4.08.2 Classes and Optical Properties of Fluorescent Dyes for Biomedical Imaging 4.08.3 Chemistry of Fluorescent Dyes 4.08.4 Summary and Conclusion References 4.09 Advanced Fluorescence Microscopy 4.09.1 Introduction 4.09.2 The Fundamentals of Optical Microscopy 4.09.3 Advanced Linear Fluorescence Microscopy 4.09.4 Nonlinear Superresolution Fluorescence Microscopy 4.09.5 Conclusion References 4.10 Uncovering Tumor Biology by Intravital Microscopy* Glossary 4.10.1 Introduction 4.10.2 Animal Models for IVM 4.10.3 Intravital Microscopic Modalities 4.10.4 IVM Studies for Tumor Biology 4.10.5 Summary and Outlook Acknowledgment References 4.11 Two-Photon Microscopy Glossary 4.11.1 Introduction 4.11.2 Basics of Laser Scanning Microscopy: The Excitation and Emission Process 4.11.3 Linear Optical Microscopy 4.11.4 Nonlinear Optical Microscopy 4.11.5 Second-Harmonic Generation Microscopy 4.11.6 Nonlinear Versus Linear Microscopy in Biomedical Imaging 4.11.7 Biomedical Application of TPLSM 4.11.8 Conclusion References 4.12 Optical Frequency-Domain Imaging Glossary 4.12.1 Introduction 4.12.2 High-Sensitivity and High-Speed OFDI 4.12.3 System Implementation 4.12.4 Functional OFDI 4.12.5 Endoscopic OFDI References 4.13 Raman-Based Technologies for Biomedical Diagnostics Glossary 4.13.1 Introduction 4.13.2 Background and Instrumentation 4.13.3 Raman Microspectroscopy 4.13.4 Applications 4.13.5 Signal Enhancement Techniques 4.13.6 Conclusions References Relevant Websites 4.14 Optical Coherence Tomography Glossary 4.14.1 Introduction 4.14.2 Low-Coherence Interferometry and TD-OCT 4.14.3 Low-Coherence Interferometry and FD-OCT 4.14.4 Adjuvant OCT Techniques 4.14.5 Summary References Relevant Websites 4.15 Two-Dimensional In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging Glossary Abbreviations 4.15.1 Introduction 4.15.2 Principles of Fluorescence Imaging 4.15.3 Methods to Improve Specificity and Sensitivity 4.15.4 In Vivo Applications of 2D Fluorescence Imaging 4.15.5 Conclusion References 4.16 Bioluminescence Imaging Glossary Abbreviation 4.16.1 Luciferase as a Reporter Gene for In Vivo Imaging 4.16.3 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments References 4.17 Inverse Models for Diffuse Optical Molecular Tomography Abbreviations 4.17.1 Introduction 4.17.2 Fluorescence Molecular Tomography 4.17.3 Bioluminescence Tomography 4.17.4 Summary References 4.18 Hybrid Optical Imaging Glossary Abbreviations 4.18.1 Introduction 4.18.3 Microcomputed Tomography 4.18.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 4.18.5 PET and SPECT 4.18.6 Handling 4.18.7 Image Fusion 4.18.8 Segmentation and Analysis 4.18.9 Improvements for Reconstruction 4.18.10 Conclusion References 4.19 Optoacoustic Imaging Abbreviations 4.19.1 Introduction 4.19.2 Generation and Detection of Optoacoustic Signals 4.19.3 Imaging Approaches 4.19.4 Multispectral Imaging 4.19.5 Quantification of Optoacoustic Images 4.19.6 Contrast Enhancement Approaches 4.19.7 Applications in Biology and Medicine 4.19.8 Conclusions References 4.20 Fluorescence-Guided Surgery: A Promising Approach for Future Oncologic Surgery Glossary Abbreviations 4.20.1 Introduction 4.20.2 Influences on Fluorescent Signal 4.20.3 SLN Mapping Using Fluorescence Imaging 4.20.4 Tumor Detection Using Organic Fluorescent Probes References 4.21 Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy Applications Glossary 4.21.1 From Endomacroscopy to Endomicroscopy, Two Centuries of Evolution 4.21.2 Principle of Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy 4.21.3 Preclinical Applications 4.21.4 Clinical Applications References 4.22 Optical Imaging in Mammography Glossary Nomenclature Abbreviations 4.22.1 Introduction 4.22.2 History 4.22.3 Materials and Methods 4.22.4 Indications 4.22.5 Studies 4.22.6 Conclusion References 4.23 External Transdermal Procedures Abbreviations 4.23.1 Introduction 4.23.2 A Brief History of OI for Clinical Diagnostics 4.23.3 Current OI Technology with Clinical Potential 4.23.4 Clinical Examples References 4.24 High Content Screening and Analysis with Nanotechnologies Glossary Abbreviations 4.24.1 Introduction 4.24.2 High Content Screening and Analysis 4.24.3 Biocompatibility of Novel Imaging Probes Based on Nanoparticles 4.24.4 Summary References Volume 5: PHYSICS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS Title Page CONTRIBUTORS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 5: PHYSICS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS 5.01 Electrical Activities in the Body Glossary Nomenclature 5.01.1 Origin of Electrical Body Activity 5.01.2 Equilibrium (Diffusion) Potentials 5.01.3 Resting Membrane Potential 5.01.4 Measurement of Membrane Potentials 5.01.5 Action Potentials 5.01.6 Voltage Clamp and Patch Clamp Techniques 5.01.7 Propagation of APs 5.01.8 Single-Cell Recordings of APs and Trains of APs 5.01.9 Synaptic Potentials 5.01.10 Sensor Potentials and AP Trains 5.01.11 Extracellular Recordings from the Nerves 5.01.12 Bioelectrical Events in the Muscles 5.01.13 Recording Electrical Body Signals from the Body Surface References 5.02 Electrocardiography Glossary 5.02.1 Cardiac Autorhythm 5.02.2 Control by the Autonomous Nervous System 5.02.3 Intracardial Electrical Control Signals: Action Potentials 5.02.4 Diagnostic Control Signals: ECG and Vectorcardiogram 5.02.5 Leads for the ECG 5.02.6 The Electrocardiographic Acquisition Chain 5.02.7 Clinical Applications 5.02.8 ECG-Related Techniques 5.02.9 Corollary References 5.03 Bioelectric Measurements: Magnetoencephalography Glossary 5.03.1 History 5.03.2 Basics 5.03.3 Instrumentation 5.03.4 Analysis and Interpretation Methods of MEG 5.03.5 Artifact Rejection Methods 5.03.6 Basic Research: Evoked Fields 5.03.7 Basic Research: Spontaneous Brain Activity 5.03.8 Fetal MEG 5.03.9 MEG in Animal Models 5.03.10 Current MEG Clinical Applications 5.03.11 Upcoming MEG Clinical Applications 5.03.12 Combining MEG with Other Imaging Methods 5.03.13 Future Developments 5.03.14 New Research and Clinical Applications Acknowledgments References 5.04 Tissue Impedance Spectroscopy and Impedance Imaging Glossary Abbreviations 5.04.1 Introduction 5.04.2 Conduction of Electricity Through Tissue 5.04.3 The Measurement of Tissue Impedance 5.04.4 Normal Tissue Impedance 5.04.6 Electrical Impedance Tomography 5.04.7 Conclusions References Relevant Website 5.05 Blood Flow Measurement Glossary 5.05.1 Introduction 5.05.2 Blood Flow in Large Vessels 5.05.3 Tissue Blood Flow References 5.06 Measurement of Temperatures of the Human Body Glossary 5.06.1 Introduction: Requirements to Physiological and Clinical Temperature Measurement 5.06.2 Physical Principles and Technical Devices of Temperature Measurement Suited for Medical Applications 5.06.3 Topography of Temperatures of the Human Body 5.06.4 Determinants of Body Temperatures 5.06.5 Measurement of Internal Body Temperatures 5.06.6 Measurement of Skin Temperatures 5.06.7 Assessment of Mean Body Temperature References 5.07 Force Measurements Glossary 5.07.1