Color Imaging : Fundamentals and Applications

This book provides the reader with an understanding of what color is, where color comes from, and how color can be used correctly in many different applications. The authors first treat the physics of light and its interaction with matter at the atomic level, so that the origins of color can be appreciated. The intimate relationship between energy levels, orbital states, and electromagnetic waves helps to explain why diamonds shimmer, rubies are red, and the feathers of the Blue Jay are blue. Then, color theory is explained from its origin to the current state of the art, including image capture and display as well as the practical use of color in disciplines such as computer graphics, computer vision, photography, and film. Contents......Page 6 Preface......Page 14 Part I: Principles......Page 17 1. Introduction......Page 19 1.1. Color in Nature......Page 20 1.2. Color in Society......Page 26 1.3. In this Book......Page 28 1.4. Further Reading......Page 30 2. Physics of Light......Page 33 2.2. Waves......Page 44 2.3. Polarization......Page 54 2.4. Spectral Irradiance......Page 61 2.5. Reflection and Refraction......Page 63 2.6. Birefringence......Page 79 2.7. Interference and Diffraction......Page 82 2.8. Scattering......Page 94 2.9. Geometrical Optics......Page 100 2.10. Application: Image Synthesis......Page 112 2.11. Application: Modeling the Atmosphere......Page 120 2.12. Summary......Page 135 2.13. Further Reading......Page 136 3. Chemistry of Matter......Page 137 3.1. Classical Physics......Page 138 3.2. Quantum Mechanics......Page 140 3.3. Atoms and Ions......Page 154 3.4. Molecules......Page 160 3.5. Sources of Radiation......Page 175 3.6. Polarization in Dielectric Materials......Page 198 3.7. Dichroism......Page 206 3.8. Application: Modeling of Fire and Flames......Page 207 3.9. Further Reading......Page 213 4. Human Vision......Page 215 4.1. Osteology of the Skull......Page 216 4.2. Anatomy of the Eye......Page 217 4.3. The Retina......Page 228 4.4. The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus......Page 244 4.6. A Multi-Stage Color Model......Page 253 4.7. Alternative Theory of Color Vision......Page 261 4.8. Application: Modeling a Human Retina......Page 263 4.9. Further Reading......Page 266 5. Perception......Page 267 5.1. Lightness, Brightness, and Related Definitions......Page 268 5.3. Models of Color Processing......Page 272 5.4. Visual Illusions......Page 275 5.5. Adaptation and Sensitivity......Page 286 5.6. Visual Acuity......Page 295 5.7. Simultaneous Contrast......Page 298 5.8. Lightness Constancy......Page 302 5.11. Color Anomalies......Page 318 5.10. Category-Based Processing......Page 314 5.12. Application: Shadow Removal from Images......Page 325 5.13. Application: Graphical Design......Page 328 5.15. Further Reading......Page 330 Part II: Color Models......Page 333 6. Radiometry and Photometry......Page 335 6.1. The Sensitivity of the Human Eye......Page 336 6.2. Radiometric and Photometric Quantities......Page 338 6.3. The Efficacy of Optical Radiation......Page 353 6.4. Luminance, Brightness, and Contrast......Page 356 6.5. Optical Detectors......Page 358 6.6. Light Standards......Page 361 6.7. Detector Standards......Page 362 6.8. Measurement of Optical Radiation......Page 363 6.9. Visual Photometry......Page 372 6.10. Application: Measuring Materials......Page 375 6.11. Further Reading......Page 378 7. Colorimetry......Page 379 7.1. Grassmann’s Laws......Page 380 7.2. Visual Color Matching......Page 382 7.3. Color-Matching Functions......Page 389 7.4. CIE 1931 and 1964 Standard Observers......Page 391 7.5. Calculating Tristimulus Values and Chromaticities......Page 394 7.6. Practical Applications of Colorimetry......Page 403 7.7. Application: Iso-Luminant Color Maps......Page 413 8. Color Spaces......Page 421 8.1. RGB Color Spaces......Page 427 8.2. Printers......Page 434 8.3. Luminance-Chrominance Color Spaces......Page 443 8.4. Television and Video......Page 446 8.5. Hue-Saturation-Lightness Spaces......Page 455 8.6. HVS Derived Color Spaces......Page 460 8.7. Color Opponent Spaces......Page 464 8.8. Color Difference Metrics......Page 475 8.9. Color Order Systems......Page 481 8.10. Application: Color Transfer between Images......Page 483 8.11. Application: Color-to-Gray Conversion......Page 490 8.12. Application: Rendering......Page 494 8.13. Application: Rendering and Color-Matching Paints......Page 496 8.14. Application: Classification of Edges......Page 500 8.15. Further Reading......Page 506 9.1. CIE Standard Illuminants and Sources......Page 507 9.2. Color Temperature......Page 519 9.3. Color-Rendering Index......Page 524 9.4. CIE Metamerism Index......Page 528 9.5. Dominant Wavelength......Page 530 9.7. Colorimetric Purity......Page 533 9.8. Application: Modeling Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 534 9.9. Application: Estimating the Illuminant in an Image......Page 536 9.10. Further Reading......Page 540 10. Chromatic Adaptation......Page 541 10.1. Changes in Illumination......Page 542 10.2. Measuring Chromatic Adaptation......Page 546 10.3. Mechanisms of Chromatic Adaptation......Page 548 10.4. Models of Chromatic Adaptation......Page 554 10.5. Application: Transforming sRGB Colors to D50 for an ICC Workflow......Page 569 10.6. Application: White Balancing a Digital Camera......Page 571 10.7. Application: Color-Accurate Rendering......Page 578 10.8. Further Reading......Page 580 11. Color and Image Appearance Models......Page 581 11.1. Vocabulary......Page 582 11.2. Color Appearance Phenomena......Page 598 11.3. Color Appearance Modeling......Page 607 11.4. Image Appearance Modeling......Page 621 11.5. Applications of Color and Image Appearance Models......Page 636 Part III: Digital Color Imaging......Page 647 12. Image Capture......Page 649 12.1. Optical Image Formation......Page 651 12.2. Lenses......Page 665 12.3. Aberrations......Page 670 12.4. The Diaphragm......Page 683 12.5. The Shutter......Page 684 12.6. Filters and Coatings......Page 685 12.7. Solid-State Sensors......Page 688 12.8. In-Camera Signal Processing......Page 694 12.9. A Camera Model......Page 698 12.10. Sensor Noise Characteristics......Page 699 12.11. Measuring Camera Noise......Page 704 12.12. Radiometric Camera Calibration......Page 710 12.13. Light Field Data......Page 713 12.14. Holography......Page 717 12.15. Further Reading......Page 722 13. High Dynamic Range Image Capture......Page 725 13.1. Multi-Exposure Techniques......Page 726 13.2. Response Curve Recovery......Page 731 13.3. Noise Removal......Page 738 13.4. Ghost Removal......Page 742 13.5. Image Alignment......Page 749 13.6. Single Capture High Dynamic Range Images......Page 750 13.7. Direct High Dynamic Range Capture......Page 753 13.8. Application: Drawing Programs......Page 755 13.9. Application: Image-Based Material Editing......Page 756 13.10. Further Reading......Page 757 14.1. Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)......Page 759 14.2. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)......Page 762 14.3. Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays......Page 783 14.4. Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)......Page 784 14.5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Displays......Page 786 14.6. Organic Light-Emitting Diode Displays......Page 788 14.7. Field Emission Displays......Page 791 14.8. Surface-Conduction Electron-Emitter Displays......Page 792 14.10. Interferometric Modulator (IMOD) Displays......Page 793 14.11. Projection Displays......Page 795 14.13. Digital Light Processing (DLP®) Projectors......Page 797 14.14. Liquid Crystal on Silicon (LCoS) Projectors......Page 801 14.15. Multi-Primary Display Devices......Page 803 14.16. High Dynamic Range Display Devices......Page 807 14.18. Display Characterization......Page 810 14.19. Further Reading......Page 819 15. Image Properties and Image Display......Page 821 15.1. Natural Image Statistics......Page 822 15.2. Dynamic Range......Page 832 15.3. Cross-Media Display......Page 843 15.4. Gamut Mapping......Page 849 15.5. Gamma Correction......Page 857 15.6. Ambient Light......Page 859 16.1. A Generic Color Management System......Page 865 16.2. ICC Color Management......Page 867 16.3. Practical Applications......Page 890 17. Dynamic Range Reduction......Page 897 17.1. Spatial Operators......Page 901 17.2. Sigmoidal Compression......Page 904 17.3. Local Neighborhoods......Page 908 17.4. Sub-Band Systems......Page 911 17.5. Edge-Preserving Smoothing Operators......Page 913 17.6. Gradient-Domain Operators......Page 915 17.7. Histogram Adjustment......Page 916 17.8. Lightness Perception......Page 917 17.9. Counter Shading......Page 921 17.10. Post-Processing......Page 922 17.11. Validation and Comparison......Page 926 17.12. Further Reading......Page 942 Part IV: Appendices......Page 945 A.1. Cross and Dot Product......Page 947 A.3. Gradient of a Scalar Function......Page 949 A.5. Gauss’ Theorem......Page 950 A.6. Curl......Page 951 A.7. Stokes’ Theorem......Page 952 A.10. Homogeneous Coordinates......Page 953 B.1. Sum and Difference Formulae......Page 955 B.2. Product Identities......Page 956 B.5. Sum Identities......Page 957 B.6. Solid Angle......Page 958 C.1. Definition......Page 961 C.2. Euler's Formula......Page 962 C.3. Theorems......Page 963 C.4. Time-Harmonic Quantities......Page 964 D. Units and Constants......Page 965 E. The CIE Luminous Efficiency Functions......Page 967 F. CIE Illuminants......Page 971 G. Chromaticity Coordinates of Paints......Page 975 Bibliography......Page 977 A K Peters Contents 6 Preface 14 Part I: Principles 17 1. Introduction 19 1.1. Color in Nature 20 1.2. Color in Society 26 1.3. In this Book 28 1.4. Further Reading 30 2. Physics of Light 33 2.2. Waves 44 2.3. Polarization 54 2.4. Spectral Irradiance 61 2.5. Reflection and Refraction 63 2.6. Birefringence 79 2.7. Interference and Diffraction 82 2.8. Scattering 94 2.9. Geometrical Optics 100 2.10. Application: Image Synthesis 112 2.11. Application: Modeling the Atmosphere 120 2.12. Summary 135 2.13. Further Reading 136 3. Chemistry of Matter 137 3.1. Classical Physics 138 3.2. Quantum Mechanics 140 3.3. Atoms and Ions 154 3.4. Molecules 160 3.5. Sources of Radiation 175 3.6. Polarization in Dielectric Materials 198 3.7. Dichroism 206 3.8. Application: Modeling of Fire and Flames 207 3.9. Further Reading 213 4. Human Vision 215 4.1. Osteology of the Skull 216 4.2. Anatomy of the Eye 217 4.3. The Retina 228 4.4. The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 244 4.6. A Multi-Stage Color Model 253 4.7. Alternative Theory of Color Vision 261 4.8. Application: Modeling a Human Retina 263 4.9. Further Reading 266 5. Perception 267 5.1. Lightness, Brightness, and Related Definitions 268 5.3. Models of Color Processing 272 5.4. Visual Illusions 275 5.5. Adaptation and Sensitivity 286 5.6. Visual Acuity 295 5.7. Simultaneous Contrast 298 5.8. Lightness Constancy 302 5.9. Color Constancy 318 5.10. Category-Based Processing 314 5.11. Color Anomalies 318 5.12. Application: Shadow Removal from Images 325 5.13. Application: Graphical Design 328 5.14. Application: Telling Humans and Computers Apart 330 5.15. Further Reading 330 Part II: Color Models 333 6. Radiometry and Photometry 335 6.1. The Sensitivity of the Human Eye 336 6.2. Radiometric and Photometric Quantities 338 6.3. The Efficacy of Optical Radiation 353 6.4. Luminance, Brightness, and Contrast 356 6.5. Optical Detectors 358 6.6. Light Standards 361 6.7. Detector Standards 362 6.8. Measurement of Optical Radiation 363 6.9. Visual Photometry 372 6.10. Application: Measuring Materials 375 6.11. Further Reading 378 7. Colorimetry 379 7.1. Grassmann’s Laws 380 7.2. Visual Color Matching 382 7.3. Color-Matching Functions 389 7.4. CIE 1931 and 1964 Standard Observers 391 7.5. Calculating Tristimulus Values and Chromaticities 394 7.6. Practical Applications of Colorimetry 403 7.7. Application: Iso-Luminant Color Maps 413 8. Color Spaces 421 8.1. RGB Color Spaces 427 8.2. Printers 434 8.3. Luminance-Chrominance Color Spaces 443 8.4. Television and Video 446 8.5. Hue-Saturation-Lightness Spaces 455 8.6. HVS Derived Color Spaces 460 8.7. Color Opponent Spaces 464 8.8. Color Difference Metrics 475 8.9. Color Order Systems 481 8.10. Application: Color Transfer between Images 483 8.11. Application: Color-to-Gray Conversion 490 8.12. Application: Rendering 494 8.13. Application: Rendering and Color-Matching Paints 496 8.14. Application: Classification of Edges 500 8.15. Further Reading 506 9. Illuminants 507 9.1. CIE Standard Illuminants and Sources 507 9.2. Color Temperature 519 9.3. Color-Rendering Index 524 9.4. CIE Metamerism Index 528 9.5. Dominant Wavelength 530 9.6. Excitation Purity 533 9.7. Colorimetric Purity 533 9.8. Application: Modeling Light-Emitting Diodes 534 9.9. Application: Estimating the Illuminant in an Image 536 9.10. Further Reading 540 10. Chromatic Adaptation 541 10.1. Changes in Illumination 542 10.2. Measuring Chromatic Adaptation 546 10.3. Mechanisms of Chromatic Adaptation 548 10.4. Models of Chromatic Adaptation 554 10.5. Application: Transforming sRGB Colors to D50 for an ICC Workflow 569 10.6. Application: White Balancing a Digital Camera 571 10.7. Application: Color-Accurate Rendering 578 10.8. Further Reading 580 11. Color and Image Appearance Models 581 11.1. Vocabulary 582 11.2. Color Appearance Phenomena 598 11.3. Color Appearance Modeling 607 11.4. Image Appearance Modeling 621 11.5. Applications of Color and Image Appearance Models 636 Part III: Digital Color Imaging 647 12. Image Capture 649 12.1. Optical Image Formation 651 12.2. Lenses 665 12.3. Aberrations 670 12.4. The Diaphragm 683 12.5. The Shutter 684 12.6. Filters and Coatings 685 12.7. Solid-State Sensors 688 12.8. In-Camera Signal Processing 694 12.9. A Camera Model 698 12.10. Sensor Noise Characteristics 699 12.11. Measuring Camera Noise 704 12.12. Radiometric Camera Calibration 710 12.13. Light Field Data 713 12.14. Holography 717 12.15. Further Reading 722 13. High Dynamic Range Image Capture 725 13.1. Multi-Exposure Techniques 726 13.2. Response Curve Recovery 731 13.3. Noise Removal 738 13.4. Ghost Removal 742 13.5. Image Alignment 749 13.6. Single Capture High Dynamic Range Images 750 13.7. Direct High Dynamic Range Capture 753 13.8. Application: Drawing Programs 755 13.9. Application: Image-Based Material Editing 756 13.10. Further Reading 757 14. Display Technologies 759 14.1. Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs) 759 14.2. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) 762 14.3. Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays 783 14.4. Plasma Display Panels (PDPs) 784 14.5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Displays 786 14.6. Organic Light-Emitting Diode Displays 788 14.7. Field Emission Displays 791 14.8. Surface-Conduction Electron-Emitter Displays 792 14.9. Microcavity Plasma Devices 793 14.10. Interferometric Modulator (IMOD) Displays 793 14.11. Projection Displays 795 14.12. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projectors 797 14.13. Digital Light Processing (DLP®) Projectors 797 14.14. Liquid Crystal on Silicon (LCoS) Projectors 801 14.15. Multi-Primary Display Devices 803 14.16. High Dynamic Range Display Devices 807 14.17. Electronic Ink 810 14.18. Display Characterization 810 14.19. Further Reading 819 15. Image Properties and Image Display 821 15.1. Natural Image Statistics 822 15.2. Dynamic Range 832 15.3. Cross-Media Display 843 15.4. Gamut Mapping 849 15.5. Gamma Correction 857 15.6. Ambient Light 859 16. Color Management 865 16.1. A Generic Color Management System 865 16.2. ICC Color Management 867 16.3. Practical Applications 890 17. Dynamic Range Reduction 897 17.1. Spatial Operators 901 17.2. Sigmoidal Compression 904 17.3. Local Neighborhoods 908 17.4. Sub-Band Systems 911 17.5. Edge-Preserving Smoothing Operators 913 17.6. Gradient-Domain Operators 915 17.7. Histogram Adjustment 916 17.8. Lightness Perception 917 17.9. Counter Shading 921 17.10. Post-Processing 922 17.11. Validation and Comparison 926 17.12. Further Reading 942 Part IV: Appendices 945 A. Vectors and Matrices 947 A.1. Cross and Dot Product 947 A.2. Vector Differentiation 949 A.3. Gradient of a Scalar Function 949 A.4. Divergence 950 A.5. Gauss’ Theorem 950 A.6. Curl 951 A.7. Stokes’ Theorem 952 A.8. Laplacian 953 A.9. Vector Identities 953 A.10. Homogeneous Coordinates 953 B. Trigonometry 955 B.1. Sum and Difference Formulae 955 B.2. Product Identities 956 B.3. Double-Angle Formulae 957 B.4. Half-Angle Formulae 957 B.5. Sum Identities 957 B.6. Solid Angle 958 C. Complex Numbers 961 C.1. Definition 961 C.2. Euler's Formula 962 C.3. Theorems 963 C.4. Time-Harmonic Quantities 964 D. Units and Constants 965 E. The CIE Luminous Efficiency Functions 967 F. CIE Illuminants 971 G. Chromaticity Coordinates of Paints 975 Bibliography 977 9781568813448 Accompanying DVD-ROM contains almost all of the color photography included in the main text in high dynamic range format and includes source code for several algorithms, such as color difference metrics and color appearance models.