Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48: Reshaping the Nation (World Histories of Crime, Culture and Violence)

This book analyses the process of {u2018}reshaping{u2019} liberated societies in post-1945 Europe. Post-war societies tried to solve three main questions immediately after the dark times of occupation: Who could be considered a patriot and a valuable member of the respective national community? How could relations between men and women be (re-)established? How could the respective society strengthen national cohesion? Violence in rather different forms appeared to be a powerful tool for such a complex reshaping of societies. The chapters are based on present primary research about specific cases and consider the different political, mental, and cultural developments in various nation-states between 1944 and 1948. Examples from Italy, France, Norway, Denmark, Greece, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary demonstrate a new comparative and fascinating picture of post-war Europe. This perspective overcomes the notorious East-West dividing line, without covering the manifold differences between individual European countries. Ota Konrád is Associate Professor of Modern History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has worked on topics dealing with the history of East-Central Europe in the twentieth century. Recently, he co-edited In the Shadow of the Great War: Physical Violence in East-Central Europe, 1917-1923 (2021). Boris Barth is Professor of Modern and Contemporary History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. His publications include Europa nach dem Großen Krieg. Die Krise der Demokratie in der Zwischenkriegszeit 1918-1938 (2016) and Civilizing Missions in the Twentieth Century (edited with Rolf Hobson, 2020). Jaromír Mrňka is Researcher at the Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes, and Junior Research Fellow at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has studied the social mechanisms of denunciation, collective violence, and conflict-related acts of sexual violence in the Czech Lands during the Second World War and its aftermath Acknowledgements 6 Contents 7 Notes on Contributors 9 Chapter 1: Reshaping the Nation: An Introduction to the Collective Identities and Post-war Violence in Europe, 1944–1948 12 References 24 Bibliography 24 Chapter 2: Violence in the European Interregnum, 1944–1947 28 World War II as Multiple Wars 29 The Character of Violence 32 The Role of State Structures 34 Vengeance and Retribution 35 Women and Jews 37 Conclusions 40 References 42 Bibliography 42 Chapter 3: Gender, Ethnicity, and Multidirectional Violence in the Last Months of the German Rule in Lithuania: A Case Study of Local Force Battalions 45 Formation of the Local Force: Why Did They Volunteer? 50 Mobilising Rhetoric: Making Sense of the Anti-partisan Crusade 54 Military Collaboration, Nationalist Resistance, and Revenge 57 Combat Violence and Post-combat Symbolic Violence 59 Ethnicity and Violence Against Civilians 62 Disbandment of the Local Force and the Continuum of Violence in Post-war Lithuania 66 Conclusion 67 References 69 Archives 69 LCVA (Lietuvos centrinis valstybės archyvas)—Lithuanian Central State Archives: 69 LYA (Lietuvos Ypatingasis Archyvas)—Lithuanian Special Archives: 69 Lietuvos nacionalinė Martyno Mažvydo biblioteka (Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania): 69 Printed Sources 69 Bibliography 70 Chapter 4: Belarusian Nationalists and Nation-Building Efforts in the Twilight of World War II 74 The Belarusian Nation in Scholarly Discourse 76 Experiences Before and During World War II 79 Nation-Making in the Media 86 Belarusian Armed Groups 88 Youths, Educators, and the Family Unit 93 Conclusion 95 References 96 Archives 96 Bundesarchiv (BA), Berlin-Lichterfelde 96 Dziarzhaŭny Arkhiŭ Minskaı̆ Voblastsi (DAMV) 96 Lietuvos Centrinis Valstybės Archyvas (LCVA) 96 Národní Archiv České Republiky (NAČR) 96 National Archives at College Park, Maryland (NACP) 97 Natsyianal’ny Arkhiu Respubliki Belarusi (NARB) 97 Printed Sources 97 Bibliography 97 Chapter 5: Cleansing Greece of the Miasma of Its “Sudeten”: The Macedonian Slavs as an Unwanted Minority in the Aftermath of World War II 100 A Multi-Speed Cleansing 101 A Far from Uniform Minority 103 The Legacy of Occupation 106 The White Terror 109 A Czech Model? 112 Mapping the Minority, Defining the Enemy 118 New Cleavages, New Criteria 126 Conclusion 130 References 131 Archives 131 Private Collections 132 Printed Sources 132 Online Sources 132 Bibliography 133 Chapter 6: Purges, Patriotism, and Political Violence: The Danish Case 1944–1945 137 From the Campaign for Public Opinion to Political Violence 139 Driving Forces Behind the Escalation of 1944–1945 141 Purges Before Capitulation 145 Euphoria, Hatred, and Internments in May 1945 148 Gobs of Spittle, Ill-Treatment, Killings: Vengeance and Parades on the Streets 151 Shootings, Revenge Expeditions, and an Ongoing Minor “Civil War” 156 Post-war Problems for the Resistance Movement 160 Political Power Struggles, Judicial Process, and the Death Penalty 162 A Perspective on the “Special Case” 168 References 170 Archives 170 Printed Sources 170 Reports from the Resistance 1945 and Illegal Booklets and Papers 170 Post-war Newspapers 170 Bibliography 171 Chapter 7: “The ‘Proton Pseudos’ of Our Life After May 1945”: Czech Protestants and the Expulsion of Sudeten Germans 173 In the Pay of the Prussian King 175 Please Remain by My Side When I Need Your Advice and Help 180 “Proton Pseudos” and Its Aftermath 192 Conclusion 198 References 199 Archives 199 Printed Sources 199 Online Sources 199 Bibliography 200 Chapter 8: Redefining National Identities Through Justice: A Comparative Analysis Between Italy and France 203 The Trials of Women Charged with Collaborationism by the Corti d’Assise Straordinarie and the Cour de Justice 209 Trials of Partisans by Ordinary Justice 218 Conclusion 227 References 228 Archives 228 Archives Nationales de France 228 Archives Départementales du Pas-de-Calais 228 Archives départementales du Rhône 228 Archives Départementales de Saône-et-Loire 228 Archives Départementales de la Seine-Saint-Denis 228 Archivio di Stato di Bologna 229 Archivio di Stato di Cuneo 229 Archivio di Stato di Torino 229 Printed Sources 229 Bibliography 229 Chapter 9: “Mentalities of War, Mentalities of Peace”: Capital Punishment in the Norwegian “Treason Trials”, 1941–1948 232 Planning for the Liberation 235 A Summer of Anxiety 239 Ambivalence 245 The Last Execution 253 Conclusion 256 References 258 Archives 258 Riksarkivet Oslo (RA) 258 Nasjonalbiblioteket, Oslo 258 Digitised Newspapers: 258 Printed Sources 258 Bibliography 258 Chapter 10: A Glass Half Full or Half Empty? The Post-war Treatment of the German Minority in Denmark 260 The Origins of a German Minority in North Schleswig 261 The German Minority in Denmark between 1920 and 1945 262 Southern Jutland in 1945: A Region in Turmoil 265 Detentions and Confiscations 266 Judicial Settlement 269 Normalisation 274 Conclusion 277 References 280 Printed Sources 280 Bibliography 280 Chapter 11: “Pure Christians” Versus “Working Citizens of the Democratic Era”: How the Claimants of Jewish Property Perceived Citizenship in Hungary 282 Before and During the War: The Context of Claim Letters 285 After the War: The Context of the Reclamation Letters 289 “Pure Christians”: Claiming Jewish Property 292 The “Working Citizens of the Democratic Era”: Re-claiming Jewish Property 297 Conclusion 303 References 304 Archives 304 Hungarian National Archives, Pest County Archives: MNL PML 304 Printed Sources 304 Bibliography 304 Chapter 12: Concluding Observations 307 Forms of Violence and Their National Legitimisation 312 Forced Migrations and Ethno-National Reordering in Europe 315 Political Purges and the Values of the Nation 319 Building New National Political Orders 321 Outlook and Open Questions 323 References 326 Online Sources 326 Bibliography 326 Name Index 329 Subject Index 333 This book analyses the process of {u2018}reshaping{u2019} liberated societies in post-1945 Europe. Post-war societies tried to solve three main questions immediately after the dark times of occupation: Who could be considered a patriot and a valuable member of the respective national community? How could relations between men and women be (re-)established? How could the respective society strengthen national cohesion? Violence in rather different forms appeared to be a powerful tool for such a complex reshaping of societies. The chapters are based on present primary research about specific cases and consider the different political, mental, and cultural developments in various nation-states between 1944 and 1948. Examples from Italy, France, Norway, Denmark, Greece, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary demonstrate a new comparative and fascinating picture of post-war Europe. This perspective overcomes the notorious East-West dividing line, without covering the manifold differences between individual European countries. Ota Konrád is Associate Professor of Modern History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has worked on topics dealing with the history of East-Central Europe in the twentieth century. Recently, he co-edited In the Shadow of the Great War: Physical Violence in East-Central Europe, 1917-1923 (2021). Boris Barth is Professor of Modern and Contemporary History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. His publications include Europa nach dem Großen Krieg. Die Krise der Demokratie in der Zwischenkriegszeit 1918-1938 (2016) and Civilizing Missions in the Twentieth Century (edited with Rolf Hobson, 2020). Jaromír Mrňka is Researcher at the Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes, and Junior Research Fellow at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has studied the social mechanisms of denunciation, collective violence, and conflict-related acts of sexual violence in the Czech Lands during the Second World War and its aftermath This book analyses the process of reshaping liberated societies in post-1945 Europe. Post-war societies tried to solve three main questions immediately after the dark times of occupation: Who could be considered a patriot and a valuable member of the respective national community? How could relations between men and women be (re- )established? How could the respective society strengthen national cohesion? Violence in rather different forms appeared to be a powerful tool for such a complex reshaping of societies. The chapters are based on present primary research about specific cases and consider the different political, mental, and cultural developments in various nation-states between 1944 and 1948. Examples from Italy, France, Norway, Denmark, Greece, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary demonstrate a new comparative and fascinating picture of post-war Europe. This perspective overcomes the notorious East-West dividing line, without covering the manifold differences between individual European countries. Ota Konrad is Associate Professor of Modern History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has worked on topics dealing with the history of East-Central Europe in the twentieth century. Recently, he co-edited In the Shadow of the Great War: Physical Violence in East-Central Europe, 1917-1923 (2021). Boris Barth is Professor of Modern and Contemporary History at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. His publications include Europa nach dem Groen Krieg. Die Krise der Demokratie in der Zwischenkriegszeit 1918-1938 (2016) and Civilizing Missions in the Twentieth Century (edited with Rolf Hobson, 2020). Jaromir Mrnka is Researcher at the Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes, and Junior Research Fellow at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. He has studied the social mechanisms of denunciation, collective violence, and conflict-related acts of sexual violence in the Czech Lands during the Second World War and its aftermath