Colchester, Fortress of the War God : An Archaeological Assessment

This volume is a critical assessment of the current state of archaeological knowledge of the settlement originally called Camulodunon and now known as Colchester. The town has been the subject of antiquarian interest since the late 16th century and the first modern archaeological excavations occurred in 1845 close to Colchester Castle, the towns most prominent historic site. The earliest significant human occupation recorded from Colchester dates to the late Neolithic, but it was only towards the end of the 1st century BC that an oppidum was established in the area. This was superseded initially by a Roman legionary fortress and then the colonia of Camulodunum on a hilltop bounded on the north and east by the river Colne. There is little evidence for continuing occupation here in the early post-Roman period, but in 917 the town was re-established as a burgh and gradually grew in importance. After the Norman Conquest, a castle was built on the foundations of the ruined Roman Temple of Claudius, and a priory and an abbey were established just to the south of the walled town. Although the town, as elsewhere, was affected by the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the English Civil War it remained essentially medieval in character until the 18th century. During the 19th century this process of change was accelerated by the arrival of the railway, industrialisation and the establishment of the military garrison. Since the 1960s Colchester has been subject to recurring phases of re-development, the most recent having ended only in 2007, which have had a significant impact on the historic environment. Fortunately the town is one of the best studied in the country.Table of ContentsIntroduction1. The history of archaeology in Colchester The antiquarians and collectors The excavators The Colchester Archaeological Trust2. Geology and the Deposit Model Geology The Deposit Model3. Prehistoric Colchester Introduction Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic The Bronze Age The early and middle Iron Age The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research4. Camulodunon in the late Iron Age Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The oppidum The dykes Settlement – Sheepen Other settlement evidence Manufacturing and trade Agriculture and the field system Burials and ritual structures The current state of knowledge Importance Preservation Potential for future research5. The Roman legionary fortress, AD43–49 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Military structures outside the legionary fortress Gosbecks fort Fingringhoe supply base The road network Siting, preparation, laying-out and construction of the fortress Fortress defences Fortress streets Barrack blocks Other military buildings Construction of the fortress buildings Industrial activity Food, water supply and drainage Disposal of the dead Claudian occupation evidence and Iron Age continuity The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research6. The early Roman colonia, AD 49–61 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The creation of the colonia and its hinterland Fortress into colonia: the revised layout Defences Buildings of the colonia Public buildings Manufacturing and trade Diet Cemeteries Resistance to Rome – evidence for the Boudican revolt The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research7. The later Roman town, AD 61–410 Introduction and historical framework Past work The archaeological evidence Topographical organisation Boundaries, defences and roads Public and monumental buildings and structures Water supply Domestic and commercial buildings Manufacturing and trade Farming strategies and diet Religious and burial practice Extramural development The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research8. Early Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 410–916 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Occupation Coins Burials Possessions Pottery The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research9. Late Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 917–1066 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Town defences, street systems and urban plan Religious buildings Secular buildings Pottery and metalwork Manufacturing and trade The late Anglo-Saxon countryside Administrative frameworks Settlement and religious buildings Landscape management and rural resources Communications The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research10. Early medieval Colchester, 1066–1348 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The castle Town defences Streets Later changes to the keep, bailey buildings and defences Public buildings and works Domestic architecture Open space Suburbs The re-use of Roman materials The Hythe, commerce, trade and manufacturing The market Fairs The Hythe Fishing industry Foreign and internal trade Pottery industry Cloth industry Leather industry Metal-working Other trades, crafts and manufacturing industries Lime production Mills The countryside Administrative framework Agriculture Landscape management Settlement and religious buildings The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research Colchester medieval deposits: biological remains11. Late medieval Colchester, 1349–1540 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The urban plan Public buildings and works The town wall, town gates and castle Manufacturing and trade Other activities Domestic and commercial architecture Cellars and undercrofts The religious foundations and charitable institutions Churches The countryside The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research12. Post-medieval Colchester, 1540–1700 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence Summary of finds assemblages The archaeological evidence The urban plan Impact of the Dissolution Public buildings and other works The Hythe The town wall, town gates and castle Domestic and commercial architecture Standing buildings Excavated buildings Brick and tile Manufacturing and trade The cloth industry The Civil War Agriculture The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research13. Post-1700 Colchester Introduction and historical framework Assessment of importance and potential This volume is a critical assessment of the current state of archaeological knowledge of the settlement originally called Camulodunon and now known as Colchester. The town has been the subject of antiquarian interest since the late 16th century and the first modern archaeological excavations occurred in 1845 close to Colchester Castle, the towns most prominent historic site. The earliest significant human occupation recorded from Colchester dates to the late Neolithic, but it was only towards the end of the 1st century BC that an oppidum was established in the area. This was superseded initially by a Roman legionary fortress and then the colonia of Camulodunum on a hilltop bounded on the north and east by the river Colne. There is little evidence for continuing occupation here in the early post-Roman period, but in 917 the town was re-established as a burgh and gradually grew in importance. After the Norman Conquest, a castle was built on the foundations of the ruined Roman Temple of Claudius, and a priory and an abbey were established just to the south of the walled town. Although the town, as elsewhere, was affected by the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the English Civil War it remained essentially medieval in character until the 18th century. During the 19th century this process of change was accelerated by the arrival of the railway, industrialisation and the establishment of the military garrison. Since the 1960s Colchester has been subject to recurring phases of re-development, the most recent having ended only in 2007, which have had a significant impact on the historic environment. Fortunately the town is one of the best studied in the country. Table of Contents Introduction 1. The history of archaeology in Colchester The antiquarians and collectors The excavators The Colchester Archaeological Trust 2. Geology and the Deposit Model Geology The Deposit Model 3. Prehistoric Colchester Introduction Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic The Bronze Age The early and middle Iron Age The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 4. Camulodunon in the late Iron Age Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The oppidum The dykes Settlement – Sheepen Other settlement evidence Manufacturing and trade Agriculture and the field system Burials and ritual structures The current state of knowledge Importance Preservation Potential for future research 5. The Roman legionary fortress, AD43–49 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Military structures outside the legionary fortress Gosbecks fort Fingringhoe supply base The road network Siting, preparation, laying-out and construction of the fortress Fortress defences Fortress streets Barrack blocks Other military buildings Construction of the fortress buildings Industrial activity Food, water supply and drainage Disposal of the dead Claudian occupation evidence and Iron Age continuity The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 6. The early Roman colonia, AD 49–61 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The creation of the colonia and its hinterland Fortress into colonia: the revised layout Defences Buildings of the colonia Public buildings Manufacturing and trade Diet Cemeteries Resistance to Rome – evidence for the Boudican revolt The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 7. The later Roman town, AD 61–410 Introduction and historical framework Past work The archaeological evidence Topographical organisation Boundaries, defences and roads Public and monumental buildings and structures Water supply Domestic and commercial buildings Manufacturing and trade Farming strategies and diet Religious and burial practice Extramural development The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 8. Early Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 410–916 Introduction and historical framework Past work The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Occupation Coins Burials Possessions Pottery The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 9. Late Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 917–1066 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence Town defences, street systems and urban plan Religious buildings Secular buildings Pottery and metalwork Manufacturing and trade The late Anglo-Saxon countryside Administrative frameworks Settlement and religious buildings Landscape management and rural resources Communications The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 10. Early medieval Colchester, 1066–1348 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The castle Town defences Streets Later changes to the keep, bailey buildings and defences Public buildings and works Domestic architecture Open space Suburbs The re-use of Roman materials The Hythe, commerce, trade and manufacturing The market Fairs The Hythe Fishing industry Foreign and internal trade Pottery industry Cloth industry Leather industry Metal-working Other trades, crafts and manufacturing industries Lime production Mills The countryside Administrative framework Agriculture Landscape management Settlement and religious buildings The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research Colchester medieval deposits: biological remains 11. Late medieval Colchester, 1349–1540 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence The finds evidence The archaeological evidence The urban plan Public buildings and works The town wall, town gates and castle Manufacturing and trade Other activities Domestic and commercial architecture Cellars and undercrofts The religious foundations and charitable institutions Churches The countryside The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 12. Post-medieval Colchester, 1540–1700 Introduction and historical framework Past work The nature of the evidence Summary of finds assemblages The archaeological evidence The urban plan Impact of the Dissolution Public buildings and other works The Hythe The town wall, town gates and castle Domestic and commercial architecture Standing buildings Excavated buildings Brick and tile Manufacturing and trade The cloth industry The Civil War Agriculture The current state of knowledge Preservation Importance Potential for future research 13. Post-1700 Colchester Introduction and historical framework Assessment of importance and potential Cover 1 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Contents 8 List of Illustrations 13 Foreword 16 Acknowledgements 18 Abbreviations 19 Summary 20 Résumé 21 Zusammenfassung 22 Introduction 23 Chapter 1: The history of archaeology in Colchester 26 The antiquarians and collectors 26 The excavators 30 The Colchester Archaeological Trust 31 Chapter 2: Geology and the Deposit Model 34 Solid geology 34 Drift geology 34 The Colchester Deposit Model 35 Introduction 35 Character of archaeological deposits in Colchester 36 Sequence and nature of the deposits 36 Preservation of finds 38 Archaeological deposits 39 Results of the modelling 39 Chapter 3: Prehistoric Colchester 44 Introduction 44 Past work 47 The finds evidence 47 The archaeological evidence 50 Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic 50 The Bronze Age 51 The early and middle Iron Age 54 The current state of knowledge 55 Preservation 55 Importance 55 Potential for future research 56 Chapter 4: Camulodunon in the late Iron Age,c 50 BC–AD 43 58 Introduction and historical framework 58 Past work 61 The finds evidence 63 The archaeological evidence 66 The oppidum 66 The dykes 67 Settlement – Sheepen 68 Other settlement evidence 70 Manufacturing and trade 70 Agriculture and the field system 72 Burials and ritual structures 77 The current state of knowledge 79 Preservation 81 Importance 81 Potential for future research 82 Chapter 5: The Roman legionary fortress, AD 43–49 84 Introduction and historical framework 84 Past work 85 The finds evidence 87 The archaeological evidence 89 Military structures outside the legionary fortress 89 Siting, preparation, laying-out and construction of the fortress 92 Industrial activity 95 Food, water supply and drainage 97 Disposal of the dead 97 Claudian occupation evidence and Iron Age continuity 98 The current state of knowledge 99 Preservation 100 Importance 101 Potential for future research 101 Chapter 6: The early Roman colonia, AD 49–61 102 Introduction and historical framework 102 Past work 103 The finds evidence 104 The archaeological evidence 106 The creation of the colonia and its hinterland 106 Fortress into colonia: the revised layout 107 Defences 107 Buildings of the colonia 107 Manufacturing and trade 115 Diet 117 Cemeteries 118 Resistance to Rome – evidence for the Boudican revolt 121 The current state of knowledge 122 Preservation 122 Importance 123 Potential for future research 123 Chapter 7: The later Roman town, AD 61–410 124 Introduction and historical framework 124 Past work 126 The archaeological evidence 128 Topographical organisation 128 Boundaries, defences and roads 131 Public and monumental buildings and structures 138 Water supply 144 Domestic and commercial buildings 145 Manufacturing and trade 159 Farming strategies and diet 165 Religious and burial practice 167 Extramural development 187 The current state of knowledge 195 Preservation 197 Importance 198 Potential for future research 198 Chapter 8: Early Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 410–916 200 Introduction and historical framework 200 Past work 202 The finds evidence 202 The archaeological evidence 203 Occupation 203 Coins 206 Burials 206 Possessions 208 Pottery 208 The current state of knowledge 209 Preservation 211 Importance 211 Potential for future research 212 Chapter 9: Late Anglo-Saxon Colchester, 917–1066 214 Introduction and historical framework 214 Past work 216 The nature of the evidence 217 The finds evidence 217 The archaeological evidence 218 Town defences, street system and urban plan 218 Religious buildings 221 Secular buildings 224 Pottery and metalwork 224 Manufacturing and trade 225 The late Anglo-Saxon countryside 226 The current state of knowledge 229 Preservation 229 Importance 230 Potential for future research 230 Chapter 10: Early Medieval Colchester, 1066–1348 232 Introduction and historical framework 232 Past work 234 The nature of the evidence 235 The finds evidence 236 The archaeological evidence 238 The castle 238 Town defences 245 Streets 246 Monasteries and churches 247 Public buildings and works 255 Domestic architecture 255 Open space 261 Suburbs 262 The reuse of Roman materials 263 The Hythe, commerce, trade and manufacturing 264 The countryside 272 The current state of knowledge 274 Preservation 276 Importance 277 Potential for future research 277 Colchester medieval deposits: biological remains 278 Chapter 11: Late Medieval Colchester, 1349–1540 280 Introduction and historical framework 280 Past work 282 The nature of the evidence 283 The finds evidence 283 The archaeological evidence 284 The urban plan 284 Public buildings and works 288 The town wall, town gates and castle 289 Manufacturing and trade 291 Domestic and commercial architecture 294 Cellars and undercrofts 296 The religious foundations and charitable institutions 296 Churches 299 The countryside 300 The current state of knowledge 301 Preservation 302 Importance 302 Potential for future research 303 Chapter 12: Post-Medieval Colchester, 1540–1700 304 Introduction and historical framework 304 Past work 306 The nature of the evidence 307 Summary of finds assemblages 308 The archaeological evidence 308 The urban plan 308 The impact of the Dissolution 308 Public buildings and other works 308 The Hythe 308 The town wall, town gates and castle 308 Domestic and commercial architecture 308 Standing buildings 308 Excavated buildings 308 Brick and tile 308 Manufacturing and trade 308 The cloth industry 308 The Civil War 308 Agriculture 308 The current state of knowledge 320 Preservation 320 Importance 320 Potential for future research 320 13 Post-1700 Colchester 322 Introduction and historical framework 322 Assessment of importance and potential 325 Appendices 328 Gazetteer of prehistoric monuments, elements and finds from the study area 328 Gazetteer of late Iron Age monuments, elements and finds from the study area 330 Gazetteer of Roman monuments, elements and finds from the study area 332 Gazetteer of early Saxon monuments, elements and finds from the study area 363 Gazetteer of late Saxon monuments, elements and finds from the study area 364 Gazetteer of early medieval monuments, elements and finds from the study area 365 Gazetteer of the significant late medieval buildings of Colchester 369 Gazetteer of late medieval monuments, elements and finds from the study area 373 Gazetteer of post-medieval monuments, elements and finds from the study area 376 Gazetteer of excavations in Colchester 1845–2008 383 Tables 390 Bibliography 394 Index 410