COGNITION.

The study of human cognitive processes provides insight into why we act or react and can help us predict future behaviors. In Cognition, authors Thomas Farmer and Margaret Matlin present an engaging and highly relatable examination of how these processes work, and how they are responsible for the way we perceive and interpret the world around us. Broad in scope without sacrificing depth of detail, this text emphasizes the link between conceptual cognitive psychology and real-world experience; case studies, current trends, and historical perspectives merge to provide a comprehensive understanding of core principles and theories. This new Tenth Edition has been updated to reflect the latest research, technology, and thinking, with more in-depth coverage of topics rising to prominence in the field's current knowledge base. Expanded explanations balance classical and contemporary approaches to specific topics, while additional experiments and an emphasis on methodology and experimental design are included to facilitate a greater appreciation of the field's rigorous research. Cover Title Page Copyright Contents Preface Chapter 1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Chapter Introduction What Is Cognitive Psychology? Historical Perspective on the Field Origins of Cognitive Psychology Wilhelm Wundt Early Memory Researchers William James Behaviorism The Gestalt Approach Frederic Bartlett Cognitive Revolution Cognitive Psychology in Present Times Mind, Brain, and Behavior Cognitive Science Artificial Intelligence Computer Metaphor of the Mind The Connectionist Approach Cognitive Neuroscience Brain Lesions Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Event-Related Potential Technique Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Textbook Overview Chapter Preview Themes in the Book Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive. Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing How to Use Your Book Effectively Chapter Outline Chapter Introductions Demonstrations Individual Differences Focus Application Section Summaries End of Chapter Review Questions Keywords Keywords List & Glossary Recommended Readings Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Answer to Demonstration Chapter 2 Visual and Auditory Recognition Chapter Introduction Overview of Visual Object Recognition The Visual System Organization in Visual Perception Theories of Visual Object Recognition Feature-Analysis Theory The Recognition-by-Components Theory Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing Top-Down Processing and Reading “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition Change Blindness Inattentional Blindness Specialized Visual Recognition Processes Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition Applied Research on Face Recognition Speech Perception Characteristics of Speech Perception Word Boundaries Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation Context and Speech Perception Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception Theories of Speech Perception The Special Mechanism Approach The General Mechanism Approaches Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 3 Attention and Consciousness Chapter Introduction Overview of Attention Divided Attention Selective Attention Dichotic Listening The Stroop Effect Visual Search Eye Movements in Reading Overview of Eye Movements in Reading Selective Attention in Reading Neuroscience of Attention The Orienting Attention Network The Executive Attention Network Theories of Attention Early Theories of Attention Feature-Integration Theory Consciousness Thought Suppression Blindsight Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 4 Working Memory Chapter Introduction Classical Research on Short-Term Memory Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique Serial Position Effect Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing The Turn to Working Memory Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities Phonological Loop Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop Visuospatial Sketchpad Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad Central Executive Characteristics of the Central Executive The Central Executive and Daydreaming Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive Recent Views of the Central Executive Episodic Buffer Applications of Working Memory Working Memory and Academic Performance Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations Working Memory and Major Depression Working Memory and ADHD Working Memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder Summary Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 5 Long-Term Memory Chapter Introduction Overview of Long-Term Memory Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of Processing Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect Encoding-Specificity Principle Research on Encoding Specificity Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks Individuals with Amnesia Autobiographical Memory Schemas and Autobiographical Memory Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring Flashbulb Memories Eyewitness Testimony Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony The Post-Event Misinformation Effect Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy Special Topics in Long-Term Memory Expertise The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise How Do Experts and Novices Differ? Own-Ethnicity Bias Emotions and Memory The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy The Potential for Memory Errors Arguments for False Memory Arguments for Recovered Memory Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition Chapter Introduction Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts Divided Attention Working Memory Levels of Processing Elaboration Distinctiveness Encoding Specificity Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice Distributed-Practice Effect Testing Effect Test Anxiety Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization Imagery Organization Prospective Memory Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory Metamemory Accuracy of Metamemory Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect Feeling of Knowing Metacomprehension Metacomprehension Accuracy Improving Metacomprehension Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Answer to Demonstration 6.4 Chapter 7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps Chapter Introduction Classical Research on Visual Imagery Overview of Mental Imagery Mental Rotation Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks The Imagery Debate Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures Individual differences in mental imagery Summary Factors That Influence Visual Imagery Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery Visual Imagery and Interference Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability Auditory Imagery Auditory Imagery and Pitch Auditory Imagery and Timbre Cognitive Maps Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities Distance Estimates and Category Membership Distance Estimates and Landmarks Cognitive Maps and Shape Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps The Rotation Heuristic The Alignment Heuristic Creating a Cognitive Map The Spatial Framework Model The Situated Cognition Approach Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 8 General Knowledge Chapter Introduction Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory Background Information The Prototype Approach Characteristics of Prototypes Levels of Categorization Conclusions About the Prototype Approach The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory Comparing the Prototype and Exemplar Approaches Network Models of Semantic Memory Anderson’s ACT-R Approach The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach Schemas and Scripts Background on Schemas and Scripts Schemas and Scripts Identifying the Script in Advance Schemas and Memory Selection Schemas and Boundary Extension Schemas and Memory Abstraction The Constructive Approach The Pragmatic Approach The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction Schemas and Memory Integration The Classic Research on Memory Integration Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Answer to Demonstration 8.7 Chapter 9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension Chapter Introduction Overview of Psycholinguistics Relevant Terminology and Background on Language Basic Facts About Human Language A Brief History of Psycholinguistics Chomsky’s Approach Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning On-line Sentence Comprehension Negation and the passive voice Syntactic Complexity Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity Lexical Ambiguity Syntactic Ambiguity Good-Enough Processing Brain and Language General Considerations Aphasia Revisiting Broca’s Area Hemispheric Specialization The Mirror System Reading Comparing Written and Spoken Language Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches The Direct-Access Route The Indirect-Access Route Implications for Teaching Reading to Children Discourse Comprehension Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text Drawing Inferences During Reading The Constructionist View of Inferences Factors That Encourage Inferences Higher-Level Inferences Teaching Metacomprehension Skills Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Answer to Demonstration 9.1 Chapter 10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism Chapter Introduction Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes Producing a Word Speech Errors Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors Explanations for Speech Errors Producing a Sentence Producing Discourse Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition The Social Context of Language Production Common Ground Directives Framing Language Production and Writing The Role of Working Memory in Writing Planning a Formal Writing Assignment Sentence Generation during Writing The Revision Phase of Writing Bilingualism Background on Bilingualism The Social Context of Bilingualism Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition Second Language Proficiency Vocabulary Phonology Grammar Simultaneous Interpreters Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Chapter 11 Problem Solving and Creativity Chapter Introduction Understanding the Problem Methods of Representing the Problem Symbols Matrices Diagrams Visual Images Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving Situated Cognition Embodied Cognition Problem-Solving Strategies The Analogy Approach The Structure of the Analogy Approach The Means-Ends Heuristic Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic Computer Simulation The Hill-Climbing Heuristic Factors That Influence Problem Solving Expertise Knowledge Base Memory Problem-Solving Strategies Speed and Accuracy Metacognitive Skills Mental Set Functional Fixedness Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving Research with Asian American Females Potential Explanations Insight versus Noninsight Problems The Nature of Insight Metacognition during Problem Solving Advice about Problem Solving Creativity The Nature of Creativity Motivation and Creativity Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Answer to Demonstration 11.3 Answer to Demonstration 11.5 Answer to Demonstration 11.6B Answer to Demonstration 11.7A Answer to Demonstration 11.7B Chapter 12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making Chapter Introduction Deductive Reasoning Overview of Conditional Reasoning Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning Belief-Bias Effect Confirmation Bias The Standard Wason Selection Task Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task Applications in Medicine Further Perspectives Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic Sample Size and Representativeness Base Rate and Representativeness The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness Availability Heuristic Recency and Availability Familiarity and Availability The Recognition Heuristic Illusory Correlation and Availability Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic Estimating Confidence Intervals Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research Framing Effect The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect Overconfidence about Decisions General Studies on Overconfidence Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time Overconfidence in Political Decision Making Reasons for Overconfidence Hindsight Bias Explanations for the Hindsight Bias Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Answer to Demonstration 12.1 Answer to Demonstration 12.6 Chapter 13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan Chapter Introduction The Lifespan Development of Memory Memory in Infants Recognizing Mother Conjugate Reinforcement Memory in Children Children’s Working Memory Children’s Long-Term Memory Children’s Memory Strategies Children’s Eyewitness Testimony Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony Memory in Elderly People Working Memory in Elderly People Long-Term Memory in Elderly People Explanations for Age Differences in Memory The Lifespan Development of Metamemory Metamemory in Children Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary Children’s Judgments about Their Memory Performance Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance Metamemory in Elderly People Beliefs about Memory Memory Monitoring Awareness of Memory Problems The Development of Language Language in Infants Speech Perception during Infancy Language Comprehension during Infancy Language Production during Infancy Adults’ Language to Infants Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? Language in Children Words Morphology Syntax Pragmatics Section Summary Points Chapter Review Questions Keywords Recommended Readings Glossary References Index EULA