Code-switching : an introduction

It is quite commonplace for bilingual speakers to use two or more languages, dialects or varieties in the same conversation, without any apparent effort. The phenomenon, known as code-switching, has become a major focus of attention in linguistics. This concise and original study explores how, when and where code-switching occurs. Drawing on a diverse range of examples from medieval manuscripts to rap music, novels to advertisements, emails to political speeches, and above all everyday conversation, it argues that code-switching can only be properly understood if we study it from a variety of perspectives. It shows how sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, grammatical and developmental aspects of code-switching are all interdependent, and findings in each area are crucial to others. Breaking down barriers across the discipline of linguistics, this pioneering book confronts fundamental questions about what a 'native language' is, and whether languages can be meaningfully studied outside of the individuals who use them. Cover 1 Half-title 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 Contents 11 Acknowledgements 12 Transcription conventions 14 1 Introduction 15 1.1 What is code-switching? 15 1.2 Why study code-switching? 18 1.2.1 Code-switching as a window on speech and language 18 1.2.2 Studying code-switching for its own sake 19 1.3 A common-sense approach 21 1.4 The study of code-switching 23 1.5 The vexed question of terminology 24 1.5.1 A misleading term? 24 1.5.2 What does code-switching cover? 26 1.6 Studies of code-switching 27 1.7 Speakers’ insights 28 1.8 Further types of code-switching 30 1.8.1 Tri-/plurilinguals 30 1.8.2 Second language learners 31 1.9 Conclusion 32 2 Code-switching and language contact 34 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 Code-switching as a symptom of different/opposite tendencies 35 2.2.1 Convergence v. preserving distinctiveness 35 2.2.2 Studies which show code-switching to be bound up with shift or change 38 2.2.3 A sign of doom or of vitality? 39 2.2.4 A sign of doom or of vitality? 39 2.3 Code-switching in language interaction 44 2.3.1 Code-switching, interference and borrowing 44 2.3.1.1 Grammatical category 45 2.3.1.2 Morphophonemic integration with the surrounding language 45 2.3.1.3 Native synonym displacement 46 2.3.2 Code-switching and pidginization/creolization 47 2.3.3 Code-switching and mixed languages 48 2.4 Structural v. social influences 50 2.5 Conclusion 53 3 Social factors in code-switching 56 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Types of factor 56 3.3 Code-switching in two communities: Strasbourg and London Cypriots 57 3.3.1 Strasbourg 58 3.3.1.1 Background 58 3.3.1.2 Types of code-switching 59 3.3.2 Greek Cypriots in London 62 3.3.2.1 Background 62 3.3.2.2 Types of code-switching 63 3.3.2.3 Symbolic duality 66 3.4 Macro-linguistic approaches 68 3.4.1 Diglossia, marked choices and networks 69 3.5 The Gumperz tradition 70 3.5.1 We-codes and they-codes 70 3.5.2 Situational and conversational code-switching 72 3.6 Comparisons between and within communities 73 3.6.1 Variation between communities 74 3.6.2 Comparisons between communities 74 3.6.2.1 McClure and McClure (1988) 74 3.6.2.2 Poplack (1988) 75 3.6.2.3 Reasons underlying the differences 76 3.7 Conclusion 77 4 Code-switching in conversation 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Conversational/Pragmatic motivations 80 4.2.1 Using the external symbolism of the two codes 80 4.2.2 Code-switching as a discourse-structuring device 81 4.2.2.1 Markedness Theory and the Rational Choice Model 83 4.2.2.2 Code-switching as “verbal action”: Auer and Li Wei 84 4.2.3 Code-switching compared with monolingual conversational moves 88 4.2.4 A Western view of “intentionality”? 91 4.3 Accommodation, attitudes and audience design 92 4.3.1 Accommodation and audience design 92 4.3.2 Attitudes 95 4.4 Gender 96 4.4.1 Code-switching and gender in various communities 96 4.4.2 Code-switching, gender and politeness 98 4.4.2.1 Code-switching used for humour 99 4.4.2.3 Code-switching used for dampening directness 100 4.5 Conclusion 101 5 Grammatical aspects of code-switching 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Types of “grammar” 106 5.2.1 Prescriptive/Pedagogical grammar 106 5.2.2 Chomskyan/Universalist grammar 107 5.2.3 Formal grammars 108 5.2.4 Cognitive/Functional/Word grammars 108 5.3 The application of grammatical models to code-switching 108 5.3.1 The variationist approach 109 5.3.1.1 The clitic constraint 109 5.3.1.2 The free morpheme constraint 109 5.3.1.3 The equivalence constraint 110 5.3.2 Generativist approaches 111 5.3.2.1 Government 111 5.3.2.2 “Null” theories 112 5.3.3 The Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model 114 5.3.3.1 The Matrix Language 115 5.3.3.1.1 The quantitative criterion 115 5.3.3.1.2 The morpheme-type criterion 116 5.3.3.1.3 Other characteristics of theMatrix Language 117 5.3.3.1.4 Further possible grammatical criteria 117 5.3.3.1.5 Use of the Matrix Language by other researchers 117 5.3.4 Muysken’s “bilingual speech” 118 5.3.4.1 Alternation 118 5.3.4.2 Insertion 119 5.3.4.3 Congruent lexicalization 119 5.3.4.4 Sociolinguistic factors determining type of code-switching 119 5.4 Is grammar the right framework? 120 5.4.1 Code-switching outside the grammatical confines 120 5.4.2 Code-switching’s “language-like” properties 121 5.4.2.1 Bilingual compound verbs 121 5.4.2.2 Compromise forms 122 5.4.2.3 Further “bridge” phenomena 122 5.4.2.4 Double morphology 122 5.5 Sociolinguistic v. typological factors 123 5.6 Some unconventional proposals 125 5.6.1 “Stand alone” segments (Azuma, 1998) 125 5.6.2 Speaker awareness/education (Pandharipande, 1998) 125 5.6.3 Clausal chunks (Backus) 125 5.6.4 A grammar for speech? 126 5.7 Conclusion 126 6 Psycholinguistic approaches 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Some methodological issues 132 6.2.1 Forcing speech into “languages” 132 6.2.2 Experimental tasks 133 6.3 Areas of psycholinguistic research with potential relevance to code-switching 134 6.3.1 Separate and joint access to the bilingual lexicon 134 6.3.2 Encoding and production 135 6.4 Bilingual aphasia 136 6.4.1 A methodological caution 136 6.4.2 Brain scanning techniques 136 6.4.3 Emotional factors 137 6.4.4 Network failures 138 6.5 Localization and lateralization of the bilingual’s languages in the brain 140 6.5.1 Different languages, different locations? 140 6.5.2 Locating the switching mechanism 140 6.5.3 One pattern of lateralization for all? 141 6.5.4 Drawing conclusions from lateralization studies 142 6.6 Models of bilingual production 142 6.6.1 Green 143 6.6.2 De Bot 146 6.6.3 Myers-Scotton and Jake: testing theories on naturally occurring data 149 6.6.4 Grosjean 150 6.7 Conclusion 154 7 Acquiring code-switching: code-switching in children (and L2 learners) 156 7.1 Introduction 156 7.2 Issues in child bilingualism 157 7.2.1 Characteristics of bilingual children 157 7.2.2 Some problems with studying children’s code-switching 158 7.3 Terminology again 160 7.4 One system or two – the wrong question? 161 7.4.1 What does “mixing” mean in children? 162 7.4.2 Discrimination in receptive and productive abilities 164 7.4.2.1 Receptive 164 7.4.2.2 Productive 164 7.5 Do children obey constraints? 168 7.6 The role of input 168 7.7 Pragmatic uses of code-switching in children 171 7.8 Cognitive effects of code-switching 171 7.9 Group studies 172 7.10 Code-switching in the classroom 173 7.11 Code-switching in second language learners 174 7.12 Conclusion: code-switchers or code-breakers? 176 8 Conclusions 179 8.1 What do we know about code-switching? 179 8.2 Acknowledging fuzziness 181 8.3 The story so far 184 8.4 Code-switching as an instance of a more wide-ranging “switching” skill 190 8.5 Some directions for future research 191 8.6 The past and future of code-switching 192 Appendix Coding and analysing multilingual data: the LIDES Project1 195 A.1 Introduction 195 A.2 The goals of LIDES 196 A.2.1 Why use CHILDES? 197 A.2.2 Why use CHAT? 199 A.3 The basics of transcription 201 A.4 The essentials of a CHAT data file 205 A.4.1 The CHAT data file 205 A.4.1.1 File headers 205 A.4.1.2 The main tier 206 A.4.1.3 Dependent tiers 207 A.4.2 The readme file 208 A.4.3 depfile and depadd files 208 A.5 A step-by-step outline of the minimal transcription process 209 A.6 Using CHAT for language interaction data 211 A.6.1 Expanding the language tags 211 A.6.2 Coding at morpheme level 211 A.6.3 Coding turns 212 A.7 Automated data analysis 212 A.7.1 FREQ frequency counts 212 A.7.2 COMBO pattern matching 212 A.7.3 FLO output for other programs 212 A.8 Practical information 214 A.8.1 Datasets currently available in the LIDES database 214 A.8.2 Research contacts 215 A.8.3 How to obtain the CLAN programs 215 A.9 Glossary of terms 215 Bibliography 219 Index 247 Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Contents......Page 11 Acknowledgements......Page 12 Transcription conventions......Page 14 1.1 What is code-switching?......Page 15 1.2.1 Code-switching as a window on speech and language......Page 18 1.2.2 Studying code-switching for its own sake......Page 19 1.3 A common-sense approach......Page 21 1.4 The study of code-switching......Page 23 1.5.1 A misleading term?......Page 24 1.5.2 What does code-switching cover?......Page 26 1.6 Studies of code-switching......Page 27 1.7 Speakers’ insights......Page 28 1.8.1 Tri-/plurilinguals......Page 30 1.8.2 Second language learners......Page 31 1.9 Conclusion......Page 32 2.1 Introduction......Page 34 2.2.1 Convergence v. preserving distinctiveness......Page 35 2.2.2 Studies which show code-switching to be bound up with shift or change......Page 38 2.2.4 A sign of doom or of vitality?......Page 39 2.3.1 Code-switching, interference and borrowing......Page 44 2.3.1.2 Morphophonemic integration with the surrounding language......Page 45 2.3.1.3 Native synonym displacement......Page 46 2.3.2 Code-switching and pidginization/creolization......Page 47 2.3.3 Code-switching and mixed languages......Page 48 2.4 Structural v. social influences......Page 50 2.5 Conclusion......Page 53 3.2 Types of factor......Page 56 3.3 Code-switching in two communities: Strasbourg and London Cypriots......Page 57 3.3.1.1 Background......Page 58 3.3.1.2 Types of code-switching......Page 59 3.3.2.1 Background......Page 62 3.3.2.2 Types of code-switching......Page 63 3.3.2.3 Symbolic duality......Page 66 3.4 Macro-linguistic approaches......Page 68 3.4.1 Diglossia, marked choices and networks......Page 69 3.5.1 We-codes and they-codes......Page 70 3.5.2 Situational and conversational code-switching......Page 72 3.6 Comparisons between and within communities......Page 73 3.6.2.1 McClure and McClure (1988)......Page 74 3.6.2.2 Poplack (1988)......Page 75 3.6.2.3 Reasons underlying the differences......Page 76 3.7 Conclusion......Page 77 4.1 Introduction......Page 79 4.2.1 Using the external symbolism of the two codes......Page 80 4.2.2 Code-switching as a discourse-structuring device......Page 81 4.2.2.1 Markedness Theory and the Rational Choice Model......Page 83 4.2.2.2 Code-switching as “verbal action”: Auer and Li Wei......Page 84 4.2.3 Code-switching compared with monolingual conversational moves......Page 88 4.2.4 A Western view of “intentionality”?......Page 91 4.3.1 Accommodation and audience design......Page 92 4.3.2 Attitudes......Page 95 4.4.1 Code-switching and gender in various communities......Page 96 4.4.2 Code-switching, gender and politeness......Page 98 4.4.2.1 Code-switching used for humour......Page 99 4.4.2.3 Code-switching used for dampening directness......Page 100 4.5 Conclusion......Page 101 5.1 Introduction......Page 105 5.2.1 Prescriptive/Pedagogical grammar......Page 106 5.2.2 Chomskyan/Universalist grammar......Page 107 5.3 The application of grammatical models to code-switching......Page 108 5.3.1.2 The free morpheme constraint......Page 109 5.3.1.3 The equivalence constraint......Page 110 5.3.2.1 Government......Page 111 5.3.2.2 “Null” theories......Page 112 5.3.3 The Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model......Page 114 5.3.3.1.1 The quantitative criterion......Page 115 5.3.3.1.2 The morpheme-type criterion......Page 116 5.3.3.1.5 Use of the Matrix Language by other researchers......Page 117 5.3.4.1 Alternation......Page 118 5.3.4.4 Sociolinguistic factors determining type of code-switching......Page 119 5.4.1 Code-switching outside the grammatical confines......Page 120 5.4.2.1 Bilingual compound verbs......Page 121 5.4.2.4 Double morphology......Page 122 5.5 Sociolinguistic v. typological factors......Page 123 5.6.3 Clausal chunks (Backus)......Page 125 5.7 Conclusion......Page 126 6.1 Introduction......Page 131 6.2.1 Forcing speech into “languages”......Page 132 6.2.2 Experimental tasks......Page 133 6.3.1 Separate and joint access to the bilingual lexicon......Page 134 6.3.2 Encoding and production......Page 135 6.4.2 Brain scanning techniques......Page 136 6.4.3 Emotional factors......Page 137 6.4.4 Network failures......Page 138 6.5.2 Locating the switching mechanism......Page 140 6.5.3 One pattern of lateralization for all?......Page 141 6.6 Models of bilingual production......Page 142 6.6.1 Green......Page 143 6.6.2 De Bot......Page 146 6.6.3 Myers-Scotton and Jake: testing theories on naturally occurring data......Page 149 6.6.4 Grosjean......Page 150 6.7 Conclusion......Page 154 7.1 Introduction......Page 156 7.2.1 Characteristics of bilingual children......Page 157 7.2.2 Some problems with studying children’s code-switching......Page 158 7.3 Terminology again......Page 160 7.4 One system or two – the wrong question?......Page 161 7.4.1 What does “mixing” mean in children?......Page 162 7.4.2.2 Productive......Page 164 7.6 The role of input......Page 168 7.8 Cognitive effects of code-switching......Page 171 7.9 Group studies......Page 172 7.10 Code-switching in the classroom......Page 173 7.11 Code-switching in second language learners......Page 174 7.12 Conclusion: code-switchers or code-breakers?......Page 176 8.1 What do we know about code-switching?......Page 179 8.2 Acknowledging fuzziness......Page 181 8.3 The story so far......Page 184 8.4 Code-switching as an instance of a more wide-ranging “switching” skill......Page 190 8.5 Some directions for future research......Page 191 8.6 The past and future of code-switching......Page 192 A.1 Introduction......Page 195 A.2 The goals of LIDES......Page 196 A.2.1 Why use CHILDES?......Page 197 A.2.2 Why use CHAT?......Page 199 A.3 The basics of transcription......Page 201 A.4.1.1 File headers......Page 205 A.4.1.2 The main tier......Page 206 A.4.1.3 Dependent tiers......Page 207 A.4.3 depfile and depadd files......Page 208 A.5 A step-by-step outline of the minimal transcription process......Page 209 A.6.2 Coding at morpheme level......Page 211 A.7.3 FLO output for other programs......Page 212 A.8.1 Datasets currently available in the LIDES database......Page 214 A.9 Glossary of terms......Page 215 Bibliography......Page 219 Index......Page 247 It Is Quite Commonplace For Bilingual Speakers To Use Two Or More Languages, Dialects Or Varieties In The Same Conversation, Without Any Apparent Effort. The Phenomenon, Known As Code-switching, Has Become A Major Focus Of Attention In Linguistics. This Concise And Original Study Explores How, When And Where Code-switching Occurs. Drawing On A Diverse Range Of Examples From Medieval Manuscripts To Rap Music, Novels To Advertisements, Emails To Political Speeches, And Above All Everyday Conversation, It Argues That Code-switching Can Only Be Properly Understood If We Study It From A Variety Of Perspectives. It Shows How Sociolinguistic, Psycholinguistic, Grammatical And Developmental Aspects Of Code-switching Are All Interdependent, And Findings In Each Area Are Crucial To Others. Code-switching And Language Contact -- Social Factors In Code-switching -- Code-switching In Conversation -- Grammatical Aspects Of Code-switching -- Psycholinguistic Approaches -- Acquiring Code-switching : Code-switching In Children (and L2 Learners). Penelope Gardner-chloros. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. This text provides an introduction to code-switching. Code-switching is the use of two or more languages in the same conversation or sentence. The text examines code-switching from a multi-disciplinary perspective, and incorporates views from sociolinguistics, grammatical theory and psycholinguistics