Climate Change Impact on Groundwater Resources : Human Health Risk Assessment in Arid and Semi-arid Regions

Preface Contents About the Editors Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sections of This Book 1.2.1 Hydrological Processes in Semi-arid Regions 1.2.2 Hydrochemical Properties of Surface Water and Groundwater 1.2.3 Human Health Risk Assessment 1.2.4 Recent Trends in Management and Pollution Mitigation Strategies References Chapter 2: Climate Change Impact on Groundwater Resources in Semi-arid Regions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Background of Research 2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources 2.4 Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Quality 2.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Factors That Influence the Hydrological Process: A Climate and Land Use/Land Cover Perspective 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Hydrological Cycle 3.3 Factors Influencing the Hydrological Cycle 3.4 Climate 3.5 Land Use/Land Cover 3.6 Urbanization 3.7 Land Degradation 3.8 Disasters 3.9 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Climatic Changes Affecting Groundwater Quality in the Semi-Arid Region of Central India with a Special Reference to the Major Cities of Madhya Pradesh: A Short Review 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Natural Factors 4.2.1 Lithology and Soil Characteristics 4.2.2 Climate 4.2.3 Interaction with Other Water Bodies and Topography 4.3 Anthropogenic Factors 4.3.1 Industrial Discharge and Disposal of Waste 4.3.2 Urban Activities 4.3.3 Agriculture 4.3.3.1 Bhopal 4.3.3.2 Indore 4.3.3.3 Jabalpur 4.3.3.4 Ujjain 4.3.3.5 Dewas 4.3.3.6 Gwalior 4.3.3.7 Rewa 4.3.3.8 Chhindwara 4.3.4 The Groundwater Variation Report 4.3.5 The Monsoon Effect on the Groundwater Levels in M.P. 4.3.6 Materials and Methods 4.3.6.1 Indore 4.3.6.2 Bhopal 4.3.6.3 Jabalpur 4.3.6.4 Ujjain 4.3.6.5 Dewas 4.3.6.6 Gwalior 4.3.6.7 Rewa 4.3.6.8 Chhindwara 4.4 Results and Discussion 4.4.1 Analysis for Salinity 4.4.2 Fluoride Content 4.4.3 Nitrates 4.5 Conclusions References Chapter 5: Spatiotemporal Analysis of Rainfall Trends in Semi-Arid Regions of India Over the Last 36 Years 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Background of This Study 5.3 Objectives of This Study 5.4 Materials and Methods 5.4.1 Study Area 5.4.2 Data and Methodology 5.4.3 The Mann–Kendall Test 5.4.4 Sen’s Slope 5.5 Results and Discussion 5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 6: Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Drinking and Irrigation: A Case Study of the Kattar Micro-Watershed, Tamil Nadu 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Background of This Study 6.3 Study Area 6.4 Materials and Methods 6.4.1 Data Acquisition 6.4.2 Water Quality Index (WQI) 6.4.3 Irrigation Water Quality (IWQ) 6.5 Results and Discussion 6.5.1 Hydrochemical Characteristics 6.5.2 Piper Plot 6.6 Groundwater Quality Parameters for Drinking Purposes 6.6.1 Physical Parameters 6.6.2 Major Cations and Anions 6.7 The Water Quality Index (WQI) 6.8 Irrigation Water Quality (IWQ) 6.8.1 Physical Parameters 6.8.1.1 Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids 6.8.1.2 Magnesium Ratio (MR) 6.8.1.3 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 6.8.1.4 Total Hardness 6.8.1.5 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) 6.8.1.6 Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP) 6.8.1.7 Permeability Index (PI) 6.8.1.8 USSL Classification 6.9 Irrigation Suitability 6.10 Conclusions References Chapter 7: An Investigation of Groundwater Hydrochemistry in the Shallow Aquifers of the Cuddalore Coast, South India 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Background of This Study 7.3 Objectives of This Study 7.4 Materials and Methods 7.4.1 Study Area 7.4.2 Sample Collection and Field Site 7.5 Results and Discussion 7.5.1 Hydrogeochemical Facies 7.5.2 Gibbs Diagram 7.6 Statistics Analysis 7.6.1 Correlation Analysis 7.6.2 Factor Analysis 7.6.3 Ionic Ratio Plots 7.7 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Drinking Purposes Using the WQI and EWQI in Semi-Arid Regions in India 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Methods 8.2.1 Study Area 8.2.2 Geology 8.2.3 The WQI 8.2.4 The EWQI 8.2.5 Spatial Analysis 8.3 Result and Discussion 8.3.1 pH 8.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 8.3.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDSs) 8.3.4 TH 8.3.5 Calcium 8.3.6 Magnesium 8.3.7 Sodium 8.3.8 Potassium 8.3.9 Bicarbonate 8.3.10 Chloride 8.3.11 Sulphate 8.3.12 Nitrate 8.3.13 Fluoride 8.3.14 The WQI 8.3.15 The EWQI 8.4 Conclusions References Chapter 9: Seasonal Variation of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation Purposes in a Semi-Arid Region in Tamil Nadu, India 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Materials and Methods 9.2.1 Study Area Description (Fig. 9.1) 9.2.2 Piper Diagram 9.2.3 The US Salinity Laboratory (USSL) Diagram 9.2.4 Irrigation Indices 9.3 Results and Discussion 9.3.1 Piper Diagram 9.3.2 SAR 9.3.3 Residual Sodium Carbonate 9.3.4 Magnesium Hazards 9.3.5 Permeability Index 9.3.6 Residual Sodium Bicarbonate 9.3.7 Potential Salinity 9.3.8 Kelly Ratio 9.3.9 Percentage Sodium 9.3.10 USSL 9.4 Conclusions References Chapter 10: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality and Its Suitability for Drinking and Cultivation Practices in and around Around the Deltaic Regions of South India Using DWQI, IWQI, and GIS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Background of This Study 10.3 Objective of This Study 10.4 Materials and Methods 10.4.1 Study Area 10.4.2 Sampling and Analytical Techniques 10.4.3 The Drinking Water Quality Index (DWQI) 10.4.4 The Irrigation Water Quality Indices (IWQIs) 10.5 Results and Discussion 10.5.1 Physical Characteristics of Groundwater 10.5.1.1 pH 10.5.1.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 10.5.1.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDSs) 10.5.2 Chemical Characteristics of Groundwater 10.5.2.1 Major Cations Calcium (Ca2+) Magnesium (Mg2+) Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) 10.5.2.2 Major Anions Bicarbonate (HCO3−) Chloride (Cl−) Sulfate (SO42−), Nitrate (NO3−), and Fluoride (F−) 10.5.3 Hydrogeochemical Facies 10.5.4 The Drinking Water Quality Index (DWQI) 10.5.5 Irrigation Suitability 10.5.5.1 Total Hardness (TH) 10.5.5.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 10.5.5.3 Percentage Sodium (% Na) 10.5.5.4 Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) 10.5.5.5 Permeability Index (PI) 10.6 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Groundwater Quality Assessment Using GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for Pattukkottai Taluk, Tamil Nadu 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Background of This Study 11.3 Objective of This Study 11.4 Study Area 11.5 Materials and Methods 11.5.1 Estimation of the Physicochemical Parameters 11.5.2 Spatial Interpolation 11.5.3 Weighted Index Overlay Analysis (WIOA) 11.6 Results and Discussion 11.6.1 Physicochemical Parameters 11.6.1.1 pH 11.6.1.2 Chloride 11.6.1.3 Nitrate 11.6.1.4 Total Dissolved Solids 11.6.1.5 Total Hardness (TH) 11.6.1.6 Sulfate 11.6.1.7 Fluoride 11.6.1.8 Alkalinity 11.7 Overlay Analysis 11.8 Conclusions References Chapter 12: Study of Heavy Metal Contamination at Durgapur Barrage Site on the Damodar River 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background of this Study 12.3 Objective of this Study 12.4 Materials and Methods 12.4.1 Study Area 12.4.2 Sampling 12.4.3 Sediment Collection 12.5 Analysis Methods 12.5.1 Procedure 12.5.2 Heavy Metal Analysis 12.5.3 Estimation of the Enrichment Factor and the Geoaccumulation Index 12.6 Results and Discussion 12.6.1 Concentration of Metals in River Water 12.6.2 Heavy Metal Concentrations in Sediments 12.6.3 Heavy Metal Contamination in Fish Organs 12.7 The Contamination Index 12.7.1 The Enrichment Factor in Water 12.7.2 The Geoaccumulation Index in Water 12.7.3 The Enrichment Factor in Sediments 12.7.4 The Geoaccumulation Index in Sediments 12.8 Conclusions References Chapter 13: Heavy Metal Assessment of Groundwater on the Periphery of a Semi-Urban Solid Waste Dumpsite and Mitigation Strategy 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Review of Previous Studies 13.3 Study Area 13.4 Methodology 13.4.1 Water Sampling Locations 13.5 Results and Discussion 13.6 Outcomes 13.7 Mitigation 13.8 Conclusions 13.9 Recommendations References Chapter 14: Climate Change Impacts of Nitrate Contamination on Human Health 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Sources of Nitrate and Its Main Groups 14.2.1 Point Source Pollution 14.2.2 Non-Point Source Pollution 14.3 Climate Change and Its Impacts on Nitrate Contamination 14.4 Climate Change and Nitrate Leaching in Agricultural Lands 14.5 Sources of Human Exposure to Nitrate Contamination 14.6 Endogenic Formation of Lethal N-Nitroso Compounds in Humans 14.7 Adverse Effects of Nitrate Concentration on Human Health 14.7.1 Chronic Effects 14.7.1.1 Carcinogenicity 14.8 Acute Effects 14.8.1 Methemoglobinemia 14.8.2 Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes 14.8.3 Thyroid Disease 14.8.4 Diabetes Mellitus 14.9 Methods to Mitigate Nitrate Risks 14.10 Preventive Measures 14.11 Protection Policies and Regulations of Environments 14.12 Monitoring of Drinking Water Standards 14.13 Management of Sewage Systems 14.14 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Catastrophic Effects of Climate Change on Child Health 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Description of the Study Area 15.3 Methodology 15.4 Results and Discussion 15.5 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Mitigation Measures of Fluoride- and Nitrate-Contaminated Regions 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Groundwater and Well Water Contamination 16.1.2 Groundwater Vulnerability of Nitrate Affecting Households, Industries, and Agricultural Systems 16.1.2.1 Global Nitrate Contamination Levels 16.1.3 Groundwater Vulnerability of Fluoride Affecting Households, Industries, and Agricultural Systems 16.1.3.1 Global Fluoride Contamination Levels 16.1.4 Impacts of Nitrates and Fluorides on Infants, Children, and Adults 16.1.4.1 The Blue Baby Syndrome 16.1.4.2 Risk of Cancer in Adults 16.1.4.3 Impact on Human Organs/System 16.1.5 Prevention and Mitigation Programmes and Measures 16.1.5.1 Intense Agricultural Zones 16.1.5.2 Measures to Reduce Well Water Contamination 16.1.5.3 Minimizing Groundwater Pollution from Natural Disasters 16.1.5.4 Regulating Industrial Contamination 16.1.5.5 Preventing Household-Level Contamination 16.1.6 Nitrogen Mitigation Programmes 16.1.7 Fluoride Mitigation Programmes 16.2 Future Perspectives 16.3 Conclusions References Chapter 17: Hydrological Modelling for Ungauged Basins: An Overview of the Past, Present, and Future Directions 17.1 Introduction 17.2 History of the Hydrological Models 17.2.1 Modelling as a Mathematical Tool 17.2.2 Classification of Hydrological Modelling 17.3 Recent Developments in Hydrological Modelling 17.3.1 Prediction in Ungauged Basins 17.3.2 Distributed Hydrological Modelling 17.4 Summary and Discussion 17.5 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Appraising the Groundwater Potential of Liddar Sub-Basin (Western Himalayas) Using Geospatial Techniques 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Study Area 18.3 Data Collection 18.4 Materials and Methods 18.4.1 Relationship Among the Elements 18.5 Results and Discussion 18.5.1 Geomorphological Features 18.5.2 Soil 18.5.3 Lithological Information 18.5.4 Drainage Density 18.5.5 Lineament Density 18.5.6 Slope 18.5.7 Land Use/Land Cover (LU/LC) 18.5.8 Rainfall 18.6 Groundwater Prospecting and Validation 18.7 Conclusion References Chapter 19: Groundwater Potential Zones (GPZs) Delineation in Dhamani River Basin in Kolhapur District, Maharashtra, India, Using Remote Sensing (RS), Geographical Information System (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Techniques 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Study Area 19.3 Methodology 19.4 Results 19.4.1 Morphometric Analysis of Dhamani River Basin and Its Watersheds 19.4.2 Stream Order (U) 19.4.3 Drainage Density (Dd) 19.4.4 Stream Frequency (Fs) 19.4.5 Texture Ratio (Rt) 19.4.6 Basin Elongation Ratio (re) 19.4.7 Basin Relief (H) 19.4.8 Basin Slope (BS) 19.4.9 Geology 19.4.10 Lineament 19.4.11 Slope Analysis 19.4.12 Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 19.4.13 Soil 19.4.14 Hydrogemorphology 19.4.15 Younger Alluvial Plain 19.4.16 Pediplain 19.4.17 Pediments 19.4.18 Moderately Dissected Plateau 19.4.19 Highly Dissected Plateau 19.4.20 Denudational Hills 19.4.21 Plateau Laterite 19.5 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Assessment of Groundwater Potential Zone Mapping for Development of Semi-Arid Region Through AHP and GIS Techniques 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Study Area 20.3 Materials and Methods 20.4 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) 20.5 Weighted Overlay Analysis (WOA) 20.6 Result and Discussion 20.6.1 Geomorphology 20.6.2 Slope 20.6.3 Soil Texture 20.6.4 Lineament Density 20.6.5 Land Use 20.6.6 Drainage Density 20.6.7 Valuation of Groundwater Potential Zone 20.7 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Assessment of Groundwater Prospective Zone in Adigrat Town and Its Surrounding Area Using Geospatial Technology 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Materials and Methods 21.2.1 Description of the Study Area 21.2.2 Topography 21.2.3 Land Use, Land Cover, and Soil 21.2.4 Climate 21.3 Groundwater Field Investigations Study 21.3.1 Springs 21.3.2 Wells 21.4 Methods 21.4.1 GIS Analysis for Identification of Groundwater Potential Zones 21.4.2 Methodology for Ranking Weights 21.5 Result and Discussion 21.5.1 Deterministic Factors for Groundwater Occurrence and Movements 21.5.1.1 Geology 21.5.1.2 Lineament Density 21.5.1.3 Geomorphology 21.5.1.4 Drainage Density 21.5.1.5 Slope 21.5.1.6 Land Use and Land Cover Agricultural Lands Drylands Settlements 21.5.1.7 GIS Integration and Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones 21.6 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Computation of Rainfall Infiltrates into Coastal Soil of Andhra Pradesh, India 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Materials and Methodology 22.2.1 Study Area 22.2.2 Infiltration Method 22.3 Results 22.3.1 Geology 22.3.2 Soil 22.3.3 Infiltration Coefficient 22.3.4 Soil Infiltration 22.3.5 Groundwater 22.3.6 Discussion 22.4 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Feasibility Assessment of Low-Cost Filter to Adopt in Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Rainwater Harvesting 23.3 Components of RWH 23.4 Methodology 23.5 Results and Discussion 23.6 Conclusion 23.6.1 Recommendations References Chapter 24: Prioritization of Subwatershed Through Morphometric Analysis of Amaravathi Watershed Using Geoinformatic Techniques 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Study Area 24.3 Datasets 24.4 Morphometric Analysis (MA) 24.5 Results and Discussion 24.5.1 Linear Aspects 24.5.1.1 Stream Order (U) 24.5.1.2 Stream Length (Lu) 24.5.1.3 Mean Stream Length (Lsm) 24.5.1.4 Stream Length Ratio (Rl) 24.5.1.5 Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) 24.5.1.6 Mean Bifurcation Ratio (Rbm) 24.5.2 Aerial Aspects 24.5.2.1 Drainage Density (Dd) 24.5.2.2 Stream Frequency (Fs) 24.5.2.3 Drainage Texture (Rt) 24.5.2.4 Form Factor (Ff) 24.5.2.5 Shape Factor (Fs) 24.5.2.6 Circularity Ratio (Rc) 24.5.2.7 Elongation Ratio (Re) 24.5.2.8 Length of Overland Flow (Lg) 24.5.3 Relief Aspects 24.5.3.1 Basin Relief (R) 24.5.3.2 Relief Ratio (Rr) 24.5.3.3 Ruggedness Number (Rn) 24.5.4 Prioritization of Subwatersheds 24.5.4.1 Compound Factor (Fc) 24.6 Conclusion References Chapter 25: Conclusion 25.1 General 25.2 Climatic Change Impact on Groundwater 25.3 Groundwater Hydrochemistry 25.4 Heavy Metal Contamination 25.5 Human Health Risk Assessment 25.6 Hydraulic Modeling 25.7 Groundwater Prospective Zone 25.8 Other Important Topics Index This volume discusses climate change impacts on groundwater quality in arid and semi-arid regions, and provides human health risk assessments due to pollution of surface and groundwater. The book presents recent trends in monitoring groundwater management and implementing pollution mitigation strategies, including practices involving remote sensing and GIS techniques, entropy water quality index, weighted arithmetic water quality index, fuzzy logic applications, and improved irrigation methods. The book also outlines hydrological processes in arid and semi-arid regions and hydrochemical properties of surface and groundwater as a necessary background for understanding how pollution impacts groundwater quality and resources, and how geographical modeling of hydrological processes can aid in human health risk assessments. The book is intended for academics, administrators, policymakers, social scientists, and professionals involved in the various aspectsof climate change impact on groundwater quality, hydrological process, pollution mitigation strategies, sustainable development, and environmental planning and management.