Climate Change and Ocean Governance : Politics and Policy for Threatened Seas

Climate Change and Ocean Governance brings together authors from political science and cognate disciplines to examine the political and policy dimensions of climate change for our oceans. The environmental, social and economic consequences of oceanic change present tremendous challenges for governments and other actors. New and innovative policies for governing oceans and seas - and for managing vital marine resources - have never been more important. Existing national and international institutions for marine governance that were created when oceanic conditions were relatively static may not be adequate for a future characterized by continuous oceanic change. Responses to oceanic change will result in winners and losers, and thus will involve politics in all its manifestations. This book reveals the unavoidable connections between climate change, the oceans, and questions of governance. It provides valuable lessons for researchers, policymakers and activists concerned about governing oceanic change into the future. Cover Half Title Title Page Imprint Page Contents List of Contributors Acknowledgments Part I Introduction 1 Climate Change at Sea: Interactions, Impacts, and Governance Introduction Climate Change and Oceans: Interactions and Impacts Climate Change Science and Ocean Interactions Impacts of Oceanic Change Climate Governance: Key Objectives and Agreements Governance of Threatened Seas: Case Studies Vulnerable Islands and Coasts Marine Fisheries and Pelagic Seas Changing Polar Seas Institutions and Law for Ocean Governance Policies for Ocean Governance Conclusion References 2 The Ocean Governance Regime: International Conventions and Institutions Introduction Customary International Law International Organizations International Whaling Commission International Maritime Organization Conventions on Marine Pollution The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Territory and Jurisdiction Zones Instruments for Implementation Implementing Agreements Regional Fisheries Management Organizations Conclusion References Part II Vulnerable Islands and Coasts 3 Political Economy of Coastal Development:The Case of the Caribbean Introduction Impacts of Climate Change on Caribbean SIDS Tourism in the Caribbean: Vulnerability to Climate Change Tourism and Caribbean SIDS Tourism’s Vulnerability to Climate Change Laws and Policies on Coastal Development Conflicts in Coastal Zones Regional Approaches to Coastal Zone Management Legal and Policy Approaches: The Case of The Bahamas The Dichotomy between Coastal Development and Climate Change Adaptation Poor Coastal Development Policies and the “Coastal Squeeze” Climate Change Adaptation Options Decreasing Resilience and Available Policy Space Conclusion References 4 Coastal Development and Climate Risk Reduction in the Persian/Arabian Gulf: The Case of Qatar Introduction Coastal Climate Vulnerabilities in the Gulf Region Climate Policies and Coastal Sectors at Risk The Case of the State of Qatar Overall Vulnerability, Climate Policies, and Diplomacy Risk Reduction in Coastal Ecosystems Responses in the Coastal Built Environment The Outlook for Regional Cooperation Conclusion References 5 Adapting to Sea-Level Rise in the Indian Ocean:The Cases of India and Bangladesh Introduction Extreme Weather Events and Normalized Landscape Transformations: Aggravating Coastal Hazards Framing Adaptation to Accelerating Coastal Hazards in India and Bangladesh Implementing Adaptation Conclusion References 6 Coastal Risks from Typhoons in the Pacific:The Case of the Philippines Introduction Typhoon Trends and Attributions to Climate Change Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: The Policy Process in the Philippines Experience of DRRM and CCA Governance in Coastal Areas: The Case of Typhoon Haiyan Disaster Preparedness DRRM and CCA Innovations Following Typhoon Haiyan Managing Risks in Coastal Areas: Typhoon Haiyan and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction Priority 1: Understanding Disaster Risk Priority 2: Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance to Manage Disaster Risk Priority 3: Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience Priority 4: Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response Conclusion References 7 Ocean Policy Perspectives: The Case of Indonesia Introduction Archipelagic Challenges: Ocean Governance and the Institutional Framework Coastal Areas and Climate Change: Impacts, Mitigation, and Adaptation Impacts Mitigation and Adaptation Oceans and Climate Change: The Policy Approach Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contribution: A Promise to Keep, a Long Way to Go Conclusion References 8 Politics of Rising Tides: Governments and Nongovernmental Organizations in Small-Island Developing States Introduction Vulnerability and Resilience Addressing an International Audience Networking and NGOs Involving the Local Population Globalizing and Localizing Ethical Practices Conclusion References Part III Marine Fisheries and Pelagic Seas 9 Climate Change and Fisheries Politics: Case Studies from the United States, New Zealand, and Norway Introduction The United States Fisheries Context Stakeholder Responses New Zealand Fisheries Context Stakeholder Responses Norway Fisheries Context Stakeholder Responses Conclusion References 10 Policy Options for Marine Fisheries: Potential Approachesin a Changing Climate Introduction Climate Change Adaptation Can Be Proactive or Reactive Reactive Management: Accounting for Observed Changes Creating Flexible, Nimble Management Systems Adjusting Reference Points After Changes in Species Productivity or Stock Structure Adjusting Fisheries Allocations After Changes in Species Abundance or Distribution Adjusting Fishing Practices Proactive Management: Increasing Resilience of Individual Stocks or Species Managing for Uncertainty: Scenario Planning Managing to Promote Adaptive Capacity Protecting Age Structure Incorporating Environmental Parameters into Stock Assessments and Management Measures Decreasing Existing Stressors Enhancing or Translocating Stocks Proactive Management: Managing to Increase Ecosystem Resilience Protecting Key Habits and Species Designing Appropriate Marine Reserves Proactive Management: Managing to Increase Resilience of Fishing Businesses Expanding Flexibility in Fisheries Permitting Providing Insurance for Fishermen Improving Flexibility in the Supply Chain Conclusion Acknowledgments References 11 Large Marine Protected Areas and Ocean Resilience:Stakeholder Conflict in Pelagic Seas Introduction The Environmental Case for Large MPAs Fishing Industry Opposition United States Australia Palau Fisheries Impact of Protections US Marine Monuments The Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve Disproportionality in MPAs Conclusion References 12 Climate Change and Contested Marine Areas in the Arctic:The Case of Svalbard Introduction The Effects of Climatic Stressors on the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone Regime Vulnerability, Resilience, and Adaptive Capacity The Effect of the Ozone Hole on the Ozone Regime Black Forest Death and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Implications for the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone Conclusion References Part IV Changing Polar Seas 13 Climate Change and the Southern Ocean: The Regime Complex for Regional Governance Introduction Climate Change and the Southern Ocean Governing the Southern Ocean: The Antarctic Treaty and Its System Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic: The Madrid Protocol The Committee for Environmental Protection Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources Climate Change and the Antarctic Treaty System The Antarctic Regime Complex Climate Change and the Resilience of Antarctic Regimes and Instruments Conclusion References 14 Policy Responses to New Ocean Threats: Arctic Warming,Maritime Industries, and International Environmental Regulation Introduction International Maritime Regulations in the Arctic The Concept of Regulatory Stringency Formal Tightness Substantive Ambition Stringency Index International Maritime Regulation Database The Stringency of Arctic Maritime Regulations Historical Development Industries International Organizations External Effects Implications for Arctic Regulatory Governance Conclusion References 15 The Arctic Ocean’s Melting Ice: Institutions and Policies to Manage Black Carbon Introduction Melting of Arctic Ocean Ice Defining Black Carbon Black Carbon in the Arctic International Institutions and Policies The Arctic Council The Nordic Council The Climate and Clean Air Coalition The Gothenburg Protocol The International Maritime Organization Emission Control Areas for Ships International Civil Aviation Organization An Arctic Black Carbon Agreement Conclusion References Part V Institutions and Law for Ocean Governance 16 Contested Multilateralism: Toward Aligning Regimes for Ocean and Climate Governance Introduction Interplay between Regimes for Climate and Ocean Governance Research Design Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework Hypotheses Signaling and Contested Multilateralism Contesting Coalitions as Catalysts: Signaling in Contested Multilateralism Competitive Regime Creation in Contested Multilateralism Contested Multilateralism in Responding to Gridlock Conclusion Acknowledgments References Appendix Data and Methods Robustness Tests Results 17 Climate Change in the Coral Triangle: Enabling Institutional Adaptive Capacity Introduction Conceptual Background The Coral Triangle Initiative Assessing Adaptive Capacity Variety Learning Capacity Autonomy Leadership Resources Fair Governance Institutions and Adaptive Capacity Conclusion References 18 Nonterritorial Exclusive Economic Zones:Future Rights of Small-Island States Introduction Sovereignty and Territory Legal Status and Rights The Nature of the National Right to Marine Resources The Proprietary View The Contractarian Approach The Character of Rights to Exclusive Economic Zones The Legal Significance of the Fiduciary Relationship What Makes States Entitled to Exclusive Use of Marine Resources? What Governance Regime Does the Character of EEZ Rights Warrant in the Context of Climate Change? The Question of Remedies Conclusion References 19 International Law and Marine Ecosystem Governance:The Climate Change Nexus Introduction Legal Measures Under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement Legal Measures Governing Watercourses, Wetlands, and Biodiversity United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (New York Convention) Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki Convention) Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) Convention on Biological Diversity The Marine and Climate Change Nexus: Legal and Policy Intersections Areas of Focus for Strengthening Marine Ecosystem Governance Adoption of Source-to-Sea Governance Positive Incentives for Conservation and Sustainable Use Equitable Use of Traditional Knowledge to Support Sustainable Development Governance of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction Conclusion References 20 Managing Marine Resources: Can the Law of the Sea Treaty Adapt to Climate Change? Introduction Pollution Reduction: Mitigating Greenhouse Gases Reconceiving Fisheries Management: Adapting to Warmer and More Acidic Oceans Baselines and Maritime Jurisdiction: “Freezing” Baselines Rethinking Maritime Oil and Gas Exploitation Conclusion References Appendix Public Marine Chart Submissions under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Publicizing Territorial Seas, Arc... Part VI Policies for Ocean Governance 21 The Plastic–Climate Nexus: Linking Science, Policy, and Justice Introduction The Emergence of Plastic Pollution Microplastic Pollution and Climate Change Climate-Related Impacts of Plastic Pollution in Oceans Plastic Pollution and Climate Justice Shared Governance of Climate Change and Marine Plastic Pollution Recommendations Conclusion References 22 Financing Emission Reductions: Forest Mechanismsas a Model for Coral Reefs Introduction Coral Reefs and Climate Change Lessons From REDD+ Fund Based or Market Based? Co-benefits of Coral Protection Conclusion References 23 Capturing a Moving Target: Decarbonizing Shipping through Informational Governance Introduction Informational Governance Shipping and Climate Change Climate Change Regulation and the IMO’s Informational Tools The EEDI, SEEMP, and IMO’s Certification System The Global CO2 Data Collection System Voluntary Informational Tools for Reducing GHG Emissions From Shipping Voluntary Informational Tools for Ports Voluntary Informational Tools for Charterers and Cargo Owners Capturing a Moving Target through Informational Governance? Increasing Data Availability and Transparency? Empowerment of Actors? Conclusion References 24 Energy from the Sea: Challenges and Opportunities Introduction Traditional Ocean Energy Sources: Offshore Oil and Gas Drilling The Future of Ocean Energy: Renewables Offshore Wind Wave Energy Converters Tidal Energy Technology Deep Ocean Applications Algae Biogas Government Policies to Increase Renewable Ocean Energy Government Permitting Programs and Marine Spatial Planning Research and Development Support Project Funding and Incentives Conclusion Acknowledgments References 25 Climate Change and Navies: Bracing for the Impacts Introduction Threats of Climate Change to National Security Likely Impacts on Naval Forces Reduced Naval Preparedness Risks to Coastal Naval Infrastructure Increased Risk to Personnel Indirect and Uncertain Fallouts The Changing Role of Naval Forces in Response to Climate Change Change in Role Leading to Increased Strain on Resources Strategic Changes Multifunctionality and Force Structure Acknowledging Climate Change as a Threat to Naval Readiness The Case of the US Navy Conclusion References 26 Geoengineering at Sea: Ocean Fertilization as a Policy Option Introduction The Vital Role of Phytoplankton in the Carbon Cycle Natural Ocean Fertilization Human-Engineered Ocean Fertilization Concerns about Ocean Fertilization The Way Forward Conclusion Acknowledgment References Part VII Conclusion 27 Ocean Governances Amidst Climate Change: An Essay on the Future Introduction Oceanic Change: Governing for the Future The Durability of Sustainable Development Management for the Common Good Extreme Change, Extreme Choices Adapting Regimes to Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Climate Futures: Of Miracles, Business as Usual, and Doing What We Can Miracles Business as Usual Doing What We Can Conclusion Index