Climate Change and Estuaries (CRC Marine Science) [Team-IRA]

Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Foreword Preface About the Editors List of Contributors Section 1 Physical–Chemical Aspects Chapter 1 Introduction to Climate Change and Estuaries Abstract 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Plan of the Volume 1.3 Climate Change Drivers 1.3.1 Temperature Increases 1.3.2 Sea-Level Rise 1.3.3 Other Climatic Drivers 1.4 Anthropogenic Non-climatic Drivers 1.5 Interactive Drivers of Change 1.6 Ecological Impacts of Climate Change 1.7 Management Strategies 1.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 2 Climate Change in the Earth System Abstract 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Earth’s Energy Balance and the Greenhouse Effect 2.2.1 Radiative Forcing 2.2.2 Anthropogenic Climate Forcings 2.2.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 2.2.2.2 Methane (CH4) 2.2.2.3 Nitrous Oxides (N2O) 2.2.2.4 Water Vapor 2.2.2.5 Additional Well-Mixed Greenhouse Gases 2.2.3 Natural Forcings 2.2.3.1 Volcanoes 2.2.3.2 The Sun 2.3 Climate Sensitivity 2.4 Observed Changes in Climate 2.5 Climate Extremes 2.5.1 Storms 2.5.1.1 Tropical Storms 2.5.1.2 Extratropical Cyclones 2.6 Observed Changes in Sea-Level 2.7 Observed Changes in the Cryosphere 2.8 Surprises in the Climate System 2.8.1 Compound Extremes 2.8.2 Tipping Points and Tipping Elements 2.9 Detection and Attribution of Observed Changes in Climate 2.9.1 Mean Values 2.9.2 Event Attribution 2.10 Projected Changes in Climate 2.10.1 Projected Changes in Temperature 2.10.2 Projected Changes in Precipitation 2.10.3 Projected Changes in Humidity 2.10.4 Projected Changes in Storms and Extremes 2.11 Future Sea-Level Changes 2.12 Summary Acknowledgments References Chapter 3 Estuaries: Origin, Historical Development, and Classifications Abstract 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Origin and Development of Estuaries 3.3 Estuary Definitions 3.4 Estuary Classifications 3.4.1 Classification Based on Geomorphology 3.4.2 Classification Based on Physiography 3.4.3 Classification Based on Vertical Salinity Structure 3.4.4 Classification Based on Salinity Ranges 3.4.5 Classification Based on Water Balance 3.4.6 Classification Based on Hydrodynamics 3.4.7 Classification Based on Tidal Ranges 3.4.8 Classification Based on Sediment Infilling 3.4.9 Classification Based on Multidisciplinary Criteria 3.4.10 Classification Based on Anthropogenic Effects 3.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Sea-Level Rise and Estuaries Abstract 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Pre-historical Sea-Levels 4.3 Historical Changes in Sea-Level Rise and Extreme Events 4.4 Understanding Trends in Sea-Level Change 4.5 Sea-Level Projections for the 21st Century 4.5.1 Global Projections to 2100 4.5.2 Regional Projections to 2100 4.5.3 Evaluation of Models for Projection of Sea-Level Change 4.5.4 Other Causes of Regional Sea-Level Change and Variability 4.5.5 Extreme Events 4.6 Longer-Term Commitments and Uncertainties 4.7 Impacts 4.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 5 Anthropogenic Drivers of Estuarine Change Abstract 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Estuarine Anthropogenic Impacts 5.2.1 Habitat Loss and Alteration 5.2.2 Dredging and Dredged-Material Disposal 5.2.3 Enrichment 5.2.3.1 Nutrients and Eutrophication 5.2.3.2 Organic Matter 5.2.3.3 Thermal Loading 5.2.4 Sewage Wastes and Pathogens 5.2.5 Chemical Contaminants 5.2.6 Human-Altered Hydrological Regimes 5.2.7 Human-Induced Sediment/Particulate Inputs 5.2.8 Introduced/Invasive Species 5.2.9 Overfishing and Intensive Aquaculture 5.2.10 Coastal Subsidence 5.2.11 Floatables/Plastics/Debris 5.2.12 Climate Change 5.3 Environmental Impact Factors 5.4 Impact Remediation 5.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 6 Climate Change and Saltwater Intrusion in Estuaries Abstract 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Factors Influencing Saltwater Intrusion Length in Surface Estuaries and Subterranean Estuaries 6.2.1 Human-Related Factors 6.2.2 Natural Factors 6.2.2.1 Freshwater Discharge 6.2.2.2 Evaporation 6.2.2.3 Wind 6.2.2.4 Tides 6.2.2.5 Ocean Currents 6.2.2.6 Sea-Level Rise 6.3 Climate Change Influence on Factors Affecting Saltwater Intrusion 6.4 Quantitative Approaches to Study Saltwater Intrusion in Surface Estuaries 6.4.1 Exponential Function 6.4.2 Artificial Intelligence 6.4.3 Analytical/Theoretical Approaches 6.4.4 Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations 6.5 Quantitative Approaches to Study Saltwater Intrusion in Subterranean Estuaries 6.5.1 Hydrostatic Approach – Ghijben–Herzberg Principle 6.5.2 Dynamics Approach: Darcy’s Law 6.5.3 Mechanical Energy Approach: Bernoulli-Type Energetics 6.5.4 Numerical Simulations 6.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 7 Biogeochemical Changes in Estuaries Abstract 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Estuarine Biogeochemical Functions 7.2.1 Sources of Biogeochemical Constituents to Estuaries 7.2.2 Transformation of Biogeochemical Constituents in Estuaries 7.2.3 Organic Matter Storage in Estuaries 7.3 Climate and Global Drivers of Biogeochemical Change 7.3.1 Warming 7.3.2 Hydrological Extreme 7.3.3 Sea-Level Rise and Other Global Changes 7.3.4 Ocean Acidification 7.4 Summary Acknowledgments References Chapter 8 Hypoxia and Climate Change in Estuaries Abstract 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Estuarine Hypoxia and Climate Change 8.2.1 Temperature 8.2.2 Riverine Inputs 8.2.3 Eutrophication as a Mediator 8.2.4 Changes in Wind Patterns 8.2.5 Sea-Level Rise 8.3 Case Studies of Hypoxia in Response to Climate Change 8.3.1 Chesapeake Bay 8.3.2 Baltic Sea 8.3.3 Long Island Sound 8.3.4 Northern Gulf of Mexico 8.4 Hypoxia and Climate Change in Shallow, Nearshore Estuaries 8.4.1 Conceptualizing Hypoxia Controls in Nearshore Environments 8.4.2 Climate Effects on Diel-Cycling Hypoxia 8.4.3 Climate Effects on Episodic Hypoxia 8.4.4 Vulnerability to Climate Effects Across Space in Nearshore Systems 8.5 Predicting the Future 8.5.1 Using Models to Predict Climate Effects on Hypoxia 8.5.2 Uncertainty in Our Ability to Make Predictions 8.5.3 Predicting Life and How It Increases Uncertainty 8.5.4 Using Models to Predict Feedbacks in a Future Climate 8.6 Summary Acknowledgments References Chapter 9 Estuarine Acidification under a Changing Climate Abstract 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Carbonate Chemistry 9.2.1 Carbonate Equilibria and Temperature and Salinity Dependences 9.2.2 Sensitivities of Estuarine Waters to Acidification 9.3 Impacts of Estuarine Processes on Carbonate Chemistry and Acidification 9.3.1 River Endmember Impacts 9.3.2 River–Ocean Mixing 9.3.3 Impact of Biological Production 9.3.4 Impact of Gas Exchange 9.3.5 Impacts of Microbial Respiration 9.3.6 CaCO3 Mineral Formation and Dissolution 9.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 10 Global Change and Estuarine Carbon Dynamics Abstract 10.1 Introduction 10.2 What Is the Estuarine Carbon Cycle? 10.3 Processes and Controls That Shape the Estuarine Landscape Mosaic and the Net Carbon Balance 10.4 Inputs from Land 10.5 Tidal Wetland Area and the Carbon Cycle 10.6 Carbon Cycle in Estuarine Open Waters 10.7 CO2 Sequestration, Ocean Acidification, and the Inorganic C Cycle 10.8 General Carbon Budget of Estuaries of the Continental USA 10.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 11 Blue Carbon in a Changing Climate and a Changing Context Abstract 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Potential Shifts in Blue Carbon Accounting: The Vulnerability and Resilience of C Stocks 11.3 Potential Shifts in Blue Carbon Accounting: Net Radiative Balance of GHG Emissions 11.4 Potential Shifts in Blue Carbon Accounting: Map Extent and Characteristics 11.5 Advances in Predicting Climate Effects on Blue Carbon Stocks and Fluxes 11.5.1 Toward Better Maps 11.5.2 Toward Better Models 11.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 12 Effects of a Changing Climate on the Physics of Estuaries Abstract 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Estuarine Tides and Climate Change 12.2.1 Tides in Idealized Estuaries without Friction 12.2.2 Tides in Idealized Estuaries with Friction 12.2.3 Tides in Realistic Estuaries 12.2.4 Coastal Lagoons and Sea-Level Rise 12.3 Estuarine Circulation, Dispersion, and Climate Change 12.3.1 Tidal Dispersion (Kt) 12.3.2 Steady Shear Dispersion (Kex) 12.3.3 Fjord Circulation 12.4 Synopsis: Climate Change Effects and Ecological Implications 12.5 Conclusions References Chapter 13 Climatic Drivers of Estuarine Sediment Dynamics Abstract 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Conceptual Models of Estuarine Sediment Dynamics 13.2.1 Tidal Processes 13.2.2 Non-tidal Processes 13.2.3 Geologic-Timescale Processes 13.3 Climatic Drivers and Responses 13.3.1 Drivers of Watershed Sediment Delivery 13.3.1.1 Sediment Yield 13.3.1.2 Streamflow Timing and Magnitude 13.3.2 Drivers of Redistribution and Resuspension 13.3.2.1 Wind-Waves 13.3.2.2 Hydrodynamics and the Estuarine Turbidity Maximum 13.3.2.3 Tidal Currents and Dominance 13.3.2.4 Wind-Driven Currents 13.3.3 Drivers of Marine Sediment Delivery 13.4 Complex Feedbacks 13.4.1 Anthropogenic Processes 13.4.1.1 Storm Surge Barriers 13.4.1.2 Dredging and Sediment Disposal 13.4.1.3 Shoreline Protection 13.4.2 Intertidal and Subtidal Vegetation 13.4.3 Coastal Squeeze 13.5 Research Gaps 13.5.1 Observational Methods 13.5.2 Modeling Methods 13.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 14 Climate Change Effects on Intertidal and Subtidal Environments: Impacts, Projections, and Management Abstract 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Estuaries and the Distribution of Intertidal and Subtidal Ecosystems 14.3 Conceptualizing the Impact of Sea-Level Rise on Intertidal and Subtidal Environments 14.4 Influence of Other Human-Induced Climate Change Drivers 14.5 Modulating Effect of Humans 14.6 Evidence of Human-Induced Climate Change Impacts 14.7 Projected Impacts of Sea-Level Rise (Models from Paleo and Contemporary Records) 14.8 Management Actions and Policy Decisions to Improve Adaption 14.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Section 2 Biological Aspects Chapter 15 Estuarine and Coastal Marine Organism Responses to Climate Change: An Introduction Abstract 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Biotic Components 15.2.1 Organisms 15.2.2 Populations 15.2.3 Communities 15.3 Coupled Human–Natural Systems 15.4 Managing Estuarine Ecosystems and Climate Change 15.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 16 Microbial Ecology in a Changing Climate Abstract 16.1 Introduction to the Cast of Characters: Important Microbial Groups in Estuarine Systems 16.1.1 Bacteria and Archaea 16.1.2 Fungi 16.1.3 Viruses 16.2 All the World’s a Stage: Where These Characters Perform 16.2.1 Estuarine Water Columns 16.2.2 Subtidal Unvegetated Sediments 16.2.3 Intertidal Estuarine Habitats: Mangroves and Salt Marshes 16.2.4 Subtidal Estuarine Habitats: Seagrasses, Corals, and Oyster Reefs 16.3 They Have Their Entrances and Exits: Mechanisms of Community Assembly 16.3.1 Stochastic Processes 16.3.2 Deterministic Processes 16.4 Believe Then, If You Please, That I Can Do Strange Things: Estuarine Microbial Functioning under Climate Change 16.4.1 Photoautotrophy 16.4.2 Chemoautotrophy 16.4.3 Decomposition 16.4.4 Nitrogen Fixation 16.4.5 Nitrogen Transformations and Loss 16.4.5.1 Nitrification 16.4.5.2 Denitrification 16.4.5.3 Anammox and DNRA 16.4.6 Sulfur Cycling 16.4.7 Methane Cycling 16.5 The Fool Doth Think He Is Wise, but the Wise Man Knows Himself to Be a Fool: Lessons Learned and Mysteries Yet to Solve 16.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 17 Climate Change, Phytoplankton, and HABs 17.1 Introduction 17.2 How Does Climate Influence Phytoplankton Structure and Function? 17.3 Impacts on Harmful Algal Bloom Taxa 17.3.1 Cyanobacteria 17.3.2 Dinoflagellates 17.3.3 Other Taxa 17.4 Mitigating and Managing Estuarine HABs in a Human and Climatically Impacted World 17.4.1 Physical Controls 17.4.2 Chemical and Biological Controls 17.5 “Biting the Bullet”: Essential Nutrient Input Controls 17.5.1 Phosphorus Management 17.5.2 Nitrogen Management 17.6 The Ultimate Challenge of the 21st Century: HABs against a Backdrop of Changing Climate Conditions Acknowledgments References Chapter 18 Responses of Marine Macroalgae to Climate Change Drivers Abstract 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Global Ocean Change Drivers 18.3 Effects of Increasing CO2 and Ocean Acidification 18.4 Effects of Ocean Warming 18.5 Effects of UV Radiation 18.6 Ocean Deoxygenation 18.7 Effects of Multiple Drivers 18.8 Perspectives Acknowledgments References Chapter 19 Effects of Climate Change on Salt Marshes Abstract 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Decadal Losses of Salt Marsh Areas 19.3 Environmental and Socioeconomic Value of Salt Marshes 19.3.1 Protection of Coastlines 19.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Sequestration 19.3.3 Exports That Support Coastal Food Webs 19.3.4 Interception of Land-Derived Nutrients and Contaminants 19.3.5 Nursery Habitat for Shellfish and Finfish 19.3.6 Essential Habitat for Marsh-Dependent and Migrant Species 19.3.7 Human Services 19.4 Decadal Trajectories of Climate-Related Drivers and Effects on Salt Marshes 19.4.1 Warming 19.4.2 Acidification 19.4.3 Sea-Level Rise 19.5 Decadal Changes and Effects of Local Anthropogenic Drivers 19.5.1 Increased Nutrient Supply 19.5.2 Diminished Sediment Supply 19.6 Interactive Effects of Climate and Anthropogenic Drivers 19.6.1 Climate-Driven Changes in Control Plots and Untreated Marsh 19.6.1.1 Aboveground Changes 19.6.1.2 Belowground Changes 19.6.2 Changes in Nitrogen-Enriched Plots 19.6.2.1 Aboveground Changes 19.6.2.2 Belowground Changes 19.7 Forecasting Marsh Status through This Century 19.8 Developing Policy, Management, and Equity in Salt Marsh Conservation 19.8.1 Sediment Amendments 19.8.1.1 Thin-Layer Placement (TLP) 19.8.1.2 Sediment Diversion 19.8.2 Salt Marsh Re-alignment 19.8.3 Ditches, Runnels, Coir Logs, and Oyster-Shell Bags 19.8.4 Targeted Nitrogen Treatments 19.8.5 Allowing for Landward Migration Acknowledgments Notes References Chapter 20 Mangrove Forests and Climate Change: Impacts and Interactions Abstract 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Impacts of Changing Temperatures on Mangroves 20.3 Impacts of Changing Precipitation Patterns on Mangroves 20.4 Impacts of Increased Storminess on Mangroves 20.4.1 Tropical Storms and Cyclones 20.4.2 Wave Action 20.5 Impacts of Accelerated Sea-Level Rise on Mangroves 20.6 Mangrove Vulnerability under Multiple Climate Change Stressors 20.6.1 Overlap of Multiple Climate Change Stressors and Their Interactions 20.6.2 Northern Australia Mangrove Dieback as an Example of Stressor Interaction 20.7 Interactions between Climate Change and Human Pressures 20.8 Implications of Climate Change for Mangrove Management 20.8.1 Challenges of Climate Change for Management 20.8.2 Strategies to Manage Mangroves under Climate Change 20.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 21 Estuarine Seagrass and Climate Change Abstract 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Overview of Estuarine Seagrasses and Climate Change 21.1.2 Polyhaline Seagrass 21.1.3 Mesohaline, Oligohaline, and Freshwater Seagrass 21.1.4 Role, Values, and Services of Estuarine Seagrass 21.1.4.1 Biological Services 21.1.4.2 Physical Structure 21.1.4.3 Nutrient and Biogeochemical Cycling 21.1.4.4 Carbon Uptake and Sequestration 21.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Seagrasses: Climate Factors 21.2.1 Climate Factors 21.2.1.1 Sea-Level Rise 21.2.1.2 Temperature Increase and Ocean Acidification 21.2.1.3 Salinity Changes 21.2.1.4 Storms 21.2.2 Anthropogenic and Non-climate Factors 21.2.2.1 Watershed Changes 21.2.2.2 Nutrient and Sediment Inputs 21.2.2.3 Coastal Zone Acidification 21.2.2.4 Direct Loss 21.2.3 Interactions between Climate and Non-climate Stressors 21.3 Estuarine Seagrass Responses to Climate Change–Related Factors (and the Variability of These Factors) 21.3.1 Temperature Effects (Minimums and Maximums) 21.3.2 Latitudinal Community Shifts (Temperate vs Tropical/Subtropical) 21.3.3 Seagrass Community Change Related to Invasive and Colonizing Species 21.4 Estuarine Seagrass Management 21.4.1 Monitoring 21.4.2 Habitat Protection 21.4.3 Mitigation of Anthropogenic and Climate Stressors 21.4.4 Rehabilitation, Revegetation, and Restoration 21.5 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 22 Estuarine Benthos and Climate Change Abstract 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Sea-Level Rise: Salinity Changes, Sediment Regime, Tidal Effects, Geomorphic Effects, and Habitat Effects 22.2.1 Flooding of Strand-Marsh Habitats 22.2.2 Sea-Level Rise and Along-Estuary Salinity Distributions 22.2.3 Sea-Level Rise and Salinity-Diversity Gradients 22.2.4 Interactions of SLR, Climate Change-Related Precipitation, and Climate Oscillations on Estuarine Species Success 22.3 Climate Warming and Eutrophication 22.3.1 Climate Warming Is Part of the Record of Estuaries in Recent Decades 22.3.2 Nutrient Inputs and Responses in Estuaries 22.3.3 Movement of Species to Higher Latitudes 22.3.4 Climate Oscillations and Estuarine Circulation Disruptions 22.4 Estuarine Acidification Effects 22.5 Nutrient Cycling and Sediment Structure and the Connection to Population Responses 22.5.1 The Soft-Sediment Reactor 22.5.2 Climate Change Effects 22.6 Experimental Responses of Estuarine Benthos to Simulated Climate Changes 22.7 Planktonic Larval Mode – a Key to Species Resilience to Climate Change? 22.7.1 Larval Ecology Is a Key to Sensitivity to Climate Change 22.7.2 Estuary-Retentive Larvae 22.7.3 Shelf Broadcast Larvae 22.7.4 Tide-Neutral Larvae 22.7.5 Climate Change Consequences 22.8 Local Estuarine Circulation Disruption and Facilitation of Invasions by Climate Change 22.8.1 Past Human Effects May Set the Stage for Invasions 22.8.2 Climate Change Warming and Invasions in Estuaries 22.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 23 Estuarine Shellfish and Climate Change Abstract 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Impacts of Isolated Climate Change Stressors: Establishing the Baseline 23.2.1 Temperature 23.2.2 Carbon Dioxide 23.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen 23.2.4 Salinity 23.3 Multiple Stressors in Variable Environments 23.3.1 Coastal Hypoxia and Coastal Acidification 23.3.2 Warming and Hypoxia 23.3.3 HABs, Phytoplankton, and Other Climate Stressors 23.3.4 Disease and Other Climate Stressors 23.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 24 Climate Change Effects on Fish Populations Abstract 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Fish Guilds in Estuaries 24.3 Climate Change Drivers for Fishes in Estuaries 24.3.1 River Flow 24.3.2 Salinity Regime 24.3.3 Temperature Changes 24.3.4 Sea-Level Rise 24.3.5 Estuary Connectivity 24.3.6 Declining Dissolved Oxygen, Increasing Carbon Dioxide, and Lower pH Values 24.3.7 Spreading Diseases and Parasites 24.4 Global Examples of Changing Estuarine Fish Populations 24.4.1 Temperate Northern Atlantic and Northern Pacific Estuaries 24.4.2 Tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Estuaries 24.4.3 Temperate Southern Atlantic and Southern Indo-Pacific Estuaries 24.4.4 Polar Estuaries 24.5 The Way Forward Acknowledgments References Chapter 25 Estuarine and Coastal Birds, Climate Change, and Sea-Level Rise Abstract 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Background on Physical and Anthropogenic Effects 25.3 Types of Climate Change Effects on Estuarine Birds 25.4 Spatial Patterns of Birds in Estuaries and Climate Changes 25.4.1 Spatial Patterns of Foraging 25.4.2 Spatial Nesting Patterns of Species Breeding along the Atlantic Coast 25.4.3 Nesting Patterns of Species Nesting along the Gulf of Mexico 25.4.4 General Spatial Effects of Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise 25.5 Temporal Patterns of Estuarine Birds and Climate Change 25.5.1 Short-Term to Long-Term Effects 25.5.2 Direct, Indirect, and Cascading Effects 25.5.3 Shifts in Habitat 25.5.4 Geographical Shifts in Food over Time 25.6 Case Study: Colonial-Nesting Birds 25.6.1 Introduction to Barnegat Bay 25.6.2 Study Objectives 25.6.3 Avian Population Declines in the Barnegat Bay Ecosystem 25.6.4 What Does It Mean for the Future of Colonial-Nesting Birds? 25.6.5 Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise Are Leading to Habitat Shifts and Local Population Extinctions 25.7 Case Study: Migrant Shorebirds 25.7.1 Predicted Habitat Loss of Intertidal Mudflats Needed for Migrant Shorebirds 25.7.2 Declines of Red Knots on the Delaware Bay Stopover 25.7.3 Managing Stopover Habitats 25.8 Predicting the Future 25.9 Management Options 25.10 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 26 Climate Change and Invasive Species Abstract 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Climate Change and the Movement of Non-native Species 26.3 Extreme Climate Events and Non-native Species Establishment 26.4 Ocean Warming and Range Expansion 26.5 Changing Oceanography and Regional Spread of Invasions 26.6 Climate Change and Interactions among Native and Non-native Species 26.7 Parasites and Diseases Influenced by Climate Change 26.8 Climate Change and Intentional Introductions 26.9 Changing Precipitation, Sea-Level Rise, and Invasions 26.10 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 27 Animal Response to Hypoxia in Estuaries and Effects of Climate Change Abstract 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Hypoxia and Hypoxia Tolerance 27.3 Oxygen Supply and Demand 27.4 Aerobic Scope 27.5 Temperature 27.6 Plasticity and Acclimation 27.7 Phylogenetic Effects 27.8 Anaerobic Metabolism and Metabolic Suppression 27.9 Growth 27.10 Behavior 27.11 Larval Fishes and Estuarine Nurseries 27.12 Oxygen Thresholds and Water Quality Criteria 27.13 Climate Change Effects: Conclusions References Section 3 Management Aspects Chapter 28 Perspectives on Managing Estuaries while Addressing the Climate Crisis Abstract 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Addressing the Climate Crisis 28.3 Emissions Reduction Policies 28.4 Climate Consequences for Estuarine Management 28.5 Two Illustrative Case Studies 28.5.1 Chesapeake Bay Hypoxia 28.5.2 Mississippi River Delta Wetlands 28.6 Enabling Adaptation and Resilience 28.7 Managing Estuaries to Mitigate Climate Change 28.8 Innovation in Science and Management 28.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 29 Sea-Level Rise Risk and Adaptation in Estuaries Abstract 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Sea-Level Rise 29.2.1 Relative Sea-Level Rise 29.2.1.1 Relative Sea-Level Rise Due to Climate Change 29.2.1.2 Relative Sea-Level Rise Due to Other Drivers 29.2.2 Extreme Sea-Level Change 29.2.2.1 Extreme Sea-Level Change Due to Climate Change 29.2.2.2 Extreme Sea-Level Change Due to Other Drivers 29.3 Coastal Hazards and Risk 29.3.1 Coastal Flooding 29.3.2 Shoreline Erosion 29.3.3 Wetland Degradation and Loss 29.4 Adaptation Measures and Options 29.4.1 Fundamentally Different Ways to Respond to Sea-Level Rise 29.4.2 Nature-Based Solutions for Coastal Adaptation 29.5 Adaptation Design Considerations 29.5.1 Hard versus Soft Protection 29.5.2 Advance versus Retreat 29.5.3 Longshore Protection versus Closing Off the Estuary 29.6 Supporting Adaptation Choices and Processes 29.6.1 A Multi-objective and Multi-interest View on Coastal Adaptation 29.6.2 Implementation of Low-Regret Measures 29.6.3 Keeping Future Options Open 29.6.4 Consideration of SLR in Decisions That Need to Be Made Today 29.6.5 Contingency Planning for Possible High-End Sea-Level Rise 29.6.6 Adaptive Policy Making and Monitoring 29.7 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 30 Managing for Resilience of Estuarine and Coastal Marine Environments to Climate Change Abstract 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Defining Social-Ecological Resilience 30.3 Measuring Social-Ecological Resilience 30.4 Monitoring and Managing for Social-Ecological Resilience 30.4.1 Developing an SES Toolbox 30.4.2 Municipal Shellfish Management 30.4.3 Climate-Ready Fishing Communities 30.4.4 Mapping the Portshed 30.5 Discussion Acknowledgments References Chapter 31 Climate Change Adaptation of Engineering Infrastructure in Estuarine Environments Abstract 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Time 31.3 Climate Change Forcing 31.4 Estuary Responses to Climate Change Forcing with Implications for Infrastructure 31.5 Adaption of Estuary Infrastructure 31.6 Social and Governance Aspects 31.7 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 32 Conserving and Managing Estuaries during Climate Change Abstract 32.1 Introduction: Estuarine Vulnerability to Climate Change 32.2 Management and Mitigation Approaches 32.2.1 Managing for Resilience 32.2.1.1 Managing Estuarine Resilience by Limiting Species Loss 32.2.1.2 Managing Estuarine Resilience by Preventing or Reversing Habitat Loss 32.2.2 Marine Protected Areas 32.2.3 Management of Fisheries and Aquaculture 32.2.4 Habitat Restoration and Shoreline Protection 32.2.5 Dredging Management 32.2.6 Management of Upstream Inputs to Estuaries 32.2.6.1 Management of Sediment Deposition to Estuaries 32.2.6.2 Managing Wildfires as Part of Managing Sediment Input to Estuaries 32.2.6.3 Management of Dams and Water Diversions 32.2.6.4 Management of Thermal Energy Inputs to Estuaries 32.2.6.5 Management of Nutrient and Pollution Input to Estuaries 32.3 Conclusions References Index Climate change is having an increasing impact on coastal, estuarine, and marine environments worldwide. This book provides state-of-the-art coverage of climate change effects on estuarine ecosystems from local, regional, and global perspectives. With editors among the most noted international scholars in coastal ecology and estuarine science and contributors who are world-class in their fields, the chapters in this volume consist of comprehensive studies in coastal, estuarine and marine sciences, climate change, and coastal management and provide an extensive international collection of data in tabular, illustrated, and narrative formats useful for coastal scientists, planners, and managers. Comprised of three sections: (1) physical-chemical aspects; (2) biological aspects; and (3) management aspects, the book not only examines climatic and non-climatic drivers of change affecting coastal, estuarine, and marine environments but also their interactions and effects on populations of organisms, communities, habitats, and ecosystem structure and function. Pulling together today’s most salient issues and key literature advances for those concerned with coastal management, it allows the reader to see across direct and indirect interactions among disciplinary and ecosystem boundaries. Climate Change and Estuaries meets the research needs of climate scientists, estuarine and marine biologists, marine chemists, marine geologists, hydrologists, and coastal engineers, while students, professors, administrators, and other professionals will also find it an exhaustive reference.