Climate Change 2007 - Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC (Climate Change 2007)

Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Foreword......Page 9 Preface......Page 11 Summary for Policymakers......Page 13 Table of Contents......Page 14 B. Greenhouse gas emission trends......Page 15 C. Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030)......Page 21 D. Mitigation in the long term (after 2030)......Page 27 E. Policies, measures and instruments to mitigate climate change......Page 31 F. Sustainable development and climate change mitigation......Page 33 G. Gaps in knowledge......Page 34 Technical Summary......Page 37 Table of contents......Page 38 Past, present and future: emission trends......Page 39 International response......Page 43 Sustainable development:......Page 44 Climate change mitigation and sustainable development......Page 45 Decision-making, risk and uncertainty......Page 46 Distributional and equity aspects......Page 47 Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 48 Baseline scenario emissions (all gases and sectors)......Page 49 Stabilization scenarios......Page 50 Mitigation and adaptation in the light of climate change impacts and decision-making under uncertainties......Page 53 Linkages between short term and long term......Page 54 Status of the sector and development until 2030......Page 55 Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options, potentials and costs in the electricity generation sector......Page 56 Technology research, development, diffusion and transfer......Page 59 Status and development of the sector......Page 60 Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options, potentials and costs......Page 61 Road traffic: efficient technologies and alternative fuels......Page 62 Overall mitigation potential in the transport sector......Page 63 Integrated and non-climate policies affecting emissions of GHGs and co-benefits of GHG mitigation policies......Page 64 Mitigation potential of the building sector......Page 65 Mitigation potential of the building sector......Page 67 Effectiveness of and experience with policies for reducing CO2 emissions from energy use in buildings......Page 68 Status of the sector, development trends and implications......Page 70 Emission trends (global and regional)......Page 71 Effectiveness of and experience with climate policies, potentials, barriers and opportunities/ implementation issues......Page 73 Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 74 Emission trends......Page 75 Mitigation technologies, practices, options, potentials and costs......Page 76 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation......Page 77 Long-term outlook......Page 78 Emission sources and sinks; trends......Page 79 Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options and potentials, costs and sustainability......Page 80 Regional modelling assessments......Page 81 Forests and Sustainable Development......Page 82 Status of the sector, development trends and implications......Page 83 Emission trends......Page 84 Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options and potentials, costs and sustainability......Page 85 Effectiveness of and experience with climate policies, potentials, barriers and opportunities/implementation issues......Page 86 Technology research, development and diffusion......Page 87 Mitigation options across sectors......Page 88 Mitigation costs across sectors and macro-economic costs......Page 91 Spill-over effects from mitigation in Annex I countries on Non-Annex I countries......Page 92 Relationship between sustainable development and climate change mitigation......Page 93 Implications of development choices for climate change mitigation......Page 94 Implications of mitigation choices for sustainable development trajectories......Page 95 National policy instruments, their implementation and interactions......Page 99 International agreements (climate change agreements and other arrangements)......Page 101 Regime stringency: linking goals, participation and timing......Page 102 Non-climate policies and links to sustainable development......Page 103 Links between climate change and other policies......Page 104 Studies of costs and potentials......Page 105 1 Introduction......Page 107 Table of Contents......Page 108 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 109 1.2.2 What is dangerous interference with the climate system?......Page 111 1.2.3.1 Sustainable development......Page 112 1.2.3.4 Uncertainty and risk......Page 113 1.3.1 Review of the last three decades......Page 114 1.3.1.2 Intensities......Page 119 1.3.2.2 CO2 emissions......Page 121 1.3.2.3 Non- CO2 gases......Page 122 1.3.2.4 Total GHG emissions......Page 123 1.4.1 UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol......Page 124 1.4.2 Technology cooperation and transfer......Page 125 1.5.2 Roadmap......Page 126 REFERENCES......Page 127 2 Framing Issues......Page 129 Table of Contents......Page 130 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 131 2.1.3 The dual relationship between climate change and Sustainable Development......Page 133 2.1.4 The Sustainable Development concept......Page 134 2.1.5 Development paradigms......Page 135 2.1.6 International frameworks for evaluating Sustainable Development and climate change links......Page 136 2.1.7 Implementation of Sustainable Development and climate change policies......Page 137 2.2.3 Irreversibility and the implications for decision-making......Page 139 2.2.5 Sequential decision-making......Page 140 2.2.6 Dealing with risks and uncertainty in decision-making......Page 141 2.2.7 Decision support tools......Page 142 2.3.1 How are risk and uncertainty communicated in this report?......Page 143 2.3.2 Typologies of risk and uncertainty......Page 144 2.4.1 Definitions......Page 146 2.4.2.1 Discount rates......Page 148 2.4.2.3 Transaction and implementation costs......Page 150 2.4.3 Mitigation potentials and related costs......Page 151 2.4.3.1 Definitions of barriers, opportunities and potentials......Page 152 2.5.1 Integrating mitigation and adaptation in a development context – adaptive and mitigative capacities......Page 153 2.6 Distributional and equity aspects......Page 154 2.6.1 Development opportunities and equity......Page 155 2.6.3 Alternative approaches to social justice......Page 156 2.6.4 Equity consequences of different policy instruments......Page 157 2.7 Technology......Page 159 2.7.1 Technology and climate change......Page 160 2.7.1.1 Technological change in no-climate policy (reference) scenarios......Page 161 2.7.1.3 Technological change and the costs of achieving climate targets......Page 162 2.7.2.1 The sources of technological change......Page 164 2.7.2.2 Development and commercialization: drivers, barriers and opportunities......Page 167 2.7.2.3 The public-sector role in technological change......Page 168 2.7.3 The international dimension in technology development and deployment: technology transfer......Page 170 2.8 Regional dimensions......Page 172 REFERENCES......Page 173 3 Issues related to mitigation in the long-term context......Page 181 Table of Contents......Page 182 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 183 3.1.1.2 Narrative storylines and modelling......Page 186 3.1.2 Introduction to mitigation and stabilization scenarios......Page 187 3.1.4 Economic growth and convergence......Page 188 3.1.5 Development pathways and GHG emissions......Page 189 3.2.1 Drivers of emissions......Page 190 3.2.1.1 Population projections......Page 191 3.2.1.4 The use of MER in economic and emissions scenarios modelling......Page 192 3.2.1.5 Energy use......Page 195 3.2.1.6 Land-use change and land-use management......Page 196 3.2.2.1 CO2 emissions from energy and industry......Page 198 3.2.2.2 Anthropogenic land emissions and sequestration......Page 200 3.2.2.3 Non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions......Page 201 Sulphur dioxide emission scenarios......Page 202 NOx emission scenarios......Page 204 Emission scenarios for black and organic carbon......Page 205 3.3.2 Definition of a stabilization target......Page 206 3.3.3 How to define substitution among gases......Page 207 3.3.4 Emission pathways......Page 208 3.3.5.1 Emission reductions and timing......Page 209 3.3.5.2 GHG abatement measures......Page 212 3.3.5.3 Stabilization costs......Page 215 3.3.5.4 The role of non-CO2 GHGs......Page 218 3.3.5.5 Land use......Page 219 3.3.5.6 Air pollutants, including co-benefits......Page 225 3.3.6 Characteristics of regional and national mitigation scenarios......Page 226 3.3.6.1 Costs of mitigation in regional and country scenarios......Page 229 3.4 The role of technologies in long-term mitigation and stabilization: research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 230 3.4.1.1 Decarbonization trends......Page 231 3.4.1.2 Key factors for carbon-free energy and decarbonization development......Page 233 3.4.3.1 Summary from the TAR......Page 234 3.4.3.2 Dynamics of technology......Page 235 3.4.3.4 Dynamics in developing countries and timing of technology deployment......Page 236 3.5.1.2 Qualitative insights into interactions between mitigaton, adaptation and development......Page 237 3.5.2 Linking emission scenarios to changes in global mean temperature, impacts and key vulnerabilities......Page 239 3.5.3.1 Scenario and sensitivity analysis of climate targets......Page 241 3.5.3.3 Cost-benefi t analysis, damage cost estimates and social costs of carbon......Page 243 3.6 Links between short-term emissions trends, envisaged policies and longterm climate policy targets......Page 245 3.6.1.1 Influence of passing from concentration targets to temperature targets in a cost-effectiveness framework......Page 246 3.6.2.1 Studies reporting short-term sectoral reduction levels......Page 247 3.6.2.2 Assessment of reduction levels at different marginal prices......Page 249 Economy-wide reduction levels......Page 250 Sectoral estimates......Page 251 REFERENCES......Page 252 4 Energy Supply......Page 263 Table of Contents......Page 264 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 265 4.1 Introduction......Page 268 4.2 Status of the sector......Page 270 4.2.2 Emission trends of all GHGs......Page 273 4.2.3 Regional development trends......Page 274 4.2.4 Implications of sustainable development and energy access......Page 275 4.3 Primary energy resource potentials, supply chain and conversion technologies......Page 276 Technologies......Page 277 Unconventional natural gas......Page 278 4.3.1.3 Petroleum fuels......Page 279 4.3.2 Nuclear energy......Page 280 4.3.2.2 Nuclear-waste management, disposal and proliferation aspects......Page 281 4.3.2.3 Development of future nuclear-power systems......Page 282 4.3.2.5 Nuclear fusion......Page 283 4.3.3 Renewable energy......Page 284 4.3.3.1 Hydroelectricity......Page 285 4.3.3.2 Wind......Page 286 4.3.3.3 Biomass and bioenergy......Page 287 4.3.3.4 Geothermal......Page 289 4.3.3.5 Solar thermal electric......Page 290 4.3.3.7 Solar heating and cooling......Page 291 4.3.4 Energy carriers......Page 292 4.3.4.2 Heat and heat pumps......Page 294 Hydrogen......Page 295 4.3.6 Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)......Page 296 4.3.7 Transmission, distribution, and storage......Page 298 4.3.7.1 Energy storage......Page 299 4.3.8 Decentralized energy......Page 300 4.4.1. Carbon dioxide emissions from energy supply by 2030......Page 301 4.4.2 Cost analyses......Page 302 4.4.3 Evaluation of costs and potentials for lowcarbon, energy-supply technologies......Page 305 4.4.3.1 Plant efficiency and fuel switching......Page 306 4.4.3.2 Nuclear......Page 307 Hydro......Page 308 Bioenergy (excluding biofuels for transport)......Page 309 Coal CCS......Page 310 4.4.4 Electricity-supply sector mitigation potential and cost of GHG emission avoidance......Page 311 The baseline......Page 312 Sector analysis from 2010 to 2030......Page 313 4.4.4.1 Mitigation potentials of the electricity supply sector......Page 315 4.4.4.3 Transport biofuels......Page 316 4.5.1.1 Emission-reduction policies for energy supply......Page 317 Feed-in tariffs/Quota obligations......Page 318 Technology development and deployment......Page 319 4.5.1.2 Policy implementation experiences—successes and failures......Page 320 4.5.2 Air quality and pollution......Page 321 4.5.3 Co-benefits of mitigation policies......Page 322 4.5.4.3 Barriers to providing energy sources for sustainable development......Page 323 4.5.4.4 Strategies for providing energy for sustainable development......Page 324 4.5.6.1 Public and private funding......Page 325 REFERENCES......Page 327 5 Transport and its infrastructure......Page 335 Table of Contents......Page 336 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 337 5.2.1 Transport today......Page 340 5.2.2 Transport in the future......Page 342 Aviation......Page 346 5.3 Mitigation technologies and strategies......Page 347 5.3.1 Road transport......Page 348 Lightweight materials......Page 349 Mobil Air Conditioning (MAC) systems......Page 350 Hybrid drive trains......Page 351 Biofuels......Page 353 Natural Gas (CNG / LNG / GTL)......Page 356 Hydrogen / Fuel Cells......Page 357 5.3.1.4 Well-to-wheels analysis of technical mitigation options......Page 359 5.3.1.5 Road transport: mode shifts......Page 360 Public transport......Page 361 Non-motorized transport (NMT)......Page 362 5.3.2 Rail......Page 363 5.3.3 Aviation......Page 364 Aircraft developments......Page 365 Alternative fuels for aviation......Page 366 Aviation potential practices......Page 367 5.3.4 Shipping......Page 368 5.4.1 Available worldwide studies......Page 369 5.4.2.1 Light-duty Vehicles......Page 371 5.4.2.2 Aircraft......Page 376 5.4.2.3 Biofuels......Page 377 5.5.1.1 Land use and transport planning......Page 378 5.5.1.2 Taxation and pricing......Page 380 Taxes......Page 381 Licensing and parking charges......Page 382 5.5.1.3 Regulatory and operational measures......Page 383 5.5.1.4 Fuel economy standards – road transport......Page 384 5.5.1.5 Transport Demand Management......Page 386 5.5.2.1 Aviation......Page 387 Policies to address the full climate impact of aviation......Page 388 Economic instruments for international shipping......Page 389 5.5.4 Co-benefi ts and ancillary benefi ts......Page 390 5.5.5 Sustainable Development impacts of mitigation options and considerations on the link of adaptation with mitigation.......Page 391 REFERENCES......Page 392 6 Residential and commercial1 buildings......Page 399 Table of Contents......Page 400 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 401 6.2 Trends in buildings sector emissions......Page 403 6.3 Scenarios of carbon emissions resulting from energy use in buildings......Page 404 6.4 GHG mitigation options in buildings and equipment......Page 405 6.4.1.6 Utilize system approaches to building design......Page 406 6.4.2.1 Insulation......Page 407 6.4.3.2 Space heating systems......Page 408 6.4.4.2 Passive and low-energy cooling techniques......Page 409 6.4.4.3 Air conditioners and vapour-compression chillers......Page 410 Displacement ventilation......Page 411 Cogeneration and District Heating/Cooling......Page 412 6.4.7.2 Solar thermal energy for heating and hot water......Page 413 6.4.10 Daylighting......Page 414 6.4.11 Household appliances, consumer electronics and office equipment......Page 415 6.4.13.2 Conventional retrofits of institutional and commercial buildings......Page 416 6.4.15 Trade-offs involving energy-related emissions and halocarbon emissions......Page 417 6.4.16 Summary of mitigation options in buildings......Page 418 6.5.1 Recent advances in potential estimations from around the world......Page 421 6.5.3 Supply curves of conserved carbon dioxide......Page 426 6.5.4 Most attractive measures in buildings......Page 427 6.6.2 Improved health, quality of life and comfort......Page 428 6.6.4 Employment creation and new business opportunities......Page 429 6.7.1 Limitations of the traditional building design process and fragmented market structure......Page 430 6.7.3 Energy subsidies, non-payment and theft......Page 431 6.7.7 Culture, behaviour, lifestyle and the rebound effect......Page 432 6.8.1.1 Building codes......Page 433 6.8.1.3 Education, training and energy audit programmes......Page 434 6.8.2 Policies and programmes aimed at appliances, lighting and offi ce/consumer plug loads......Page 435 6.8.2.1 Standards and labelling......Page 436 6.8.3.1 Utility demand-side management programmes......Page 437 6.8.3.2 Energy prices, pricing schemes, energy price subsidies and taxes......Page 438 6.8.3.4 Public sector leadership programmes and public procurement policies......Page 439 6.8.3.5 Promotion of energy service companies (ESCOs) and energy performance contracting (EPC)......Page 440 6.8.3.7 The Kyoto Protocol’s Flexibility Mechanisms......Page 441 6.8.4.1 Stationary refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump applications......Page 442 6.8.5 Policy options for GHG abatement in buildings: summary and conclusion......Page 443 6.9.1 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation......Page 447 6.9.2 Synergies with sustainability in developing countries......Page 448 REFERENCES......Page 449 7 Industry......Page 459 Table of Contents......Page 460 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 461 7.1.2 Development trends......Page 463 7.1.3 Emission trends......Page 464 7.2 Industrial mitigation matrix......Page 466 7.3.1 Management practices, including benchmarking......Page 468 7.3.2 Energy efficiency......Page 469 7.3.4 Heat and power recovery......Page 470 7.3.6 Materials efficiency and recycling......Page 471 7.4.1 Iron and steel......Page 472 7.4.2.1 Aluminium......Page 475 7.4.3 Chemicals and fertilizers......Page 476 7.4.3.2 Fertilizer manufacture......Page 477 7.4.4 Petroleum refining......Page 478 7.4.5.1 Cement......Page 479 7.4.5.4 Ceramics......Page 480 7.4.6.1 Mitigation options......Page 481 7.4.7.2 Mitigation opportunities......Page 482 7.4.8 Other industries......Page 483 7.5 Short- and medium-term mitigation potential and cost......Page 484 7.5.3 Summary and comparison with other studies......Page 485 7.6 Barriers to industrial GHG mitigation......Page 487 7.7 Sustainable Development (SD) implications of industrial GHG mitigation......Page 489 7.9.1.1 Regional differences......Page 490 7.9.2.1 Government-initiated GHG programmes and voluntary agreements......Page 491 7.9.2.2 Company or industry-initiated voluntary actions......Page 492 7.9.3 Financial instruments: taxes, subsidies and access to capital......Page 493 7.9.6 Energy and technology policies......Page 494 7.9.9 Waste management policies......Page 495 7.10 Co-benefi ts of industrial GHG mitigation......Page 496 7.11 Technology Research, Development, Deployment and Diffusion (RDD&D)......Page 497 7.11.1.2 Foreign or international policies......Page 498 7.13 Key uncertainties and gaps in knowledge......Page 499 REFERENCES......Page 500 8 Agriculture......Page 509 Table of Contents......Page 510 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 511 8.2 Status of sector, development trends including production and consumption, and implications......Page 513 8.3.2 Future global trends......Page 515 8.4.1 Mitigation technologies and practices......Page 517 8.4.1.1 Cropland management......Page 518 8.4.1.2 Grazing land management and pasture improvement......Page 520 8.4.1.4 Restoration of degraded lands......Page 521 8.4.1.6 Manure management......Page 522 8.4.2 Mitigation technologies and practices: perarea estimates of potential......Page 523 8.4.3.1 Technical potential for GHG mitigation in agriculture......Page 526 8.4.3.2 Economic potential for GHG mitigation in agriculture......Page 528 8.4.4.2 Dedicated energy crops......Page 531 8.4.5 Potential implications of mitigation options for sustainable development......Page 532 8.6.1 Impact of climate policies......Page 534 8.7.1 Other UN conventions......Page 537 8.8 Co-benefits and trade-offs of mitigation options......Page 538 8.9 Technology research, development, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 542 8.10 Long-term outlook......Page 543 REFERENCES......Page 544 9 Forestry......Page 553 Table of Contents......Page 554 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 555 9.2.1 Forest area......Page 556 9.3 Regional and global trends in terrestrial greenhouse gas emissions and removals......Page 558 9.4.1 Conceptual introduction......Page 559 9.4.2 Description of mitigation measures......Page 561 9.4.2.2 Maintaining or increasing forest area: afforestation/reforestation......Page 562 Reducing deforestation......Page 563 Afforestation and reforestation......Page 564 OECD North America......Page 565 Europe......Page 566 Non-annex I East Asia......Page 567 9.4.3.2 Global Forest sectoral modelling......Page 568 9.4.3.3 Global forest mitigation in climate stabilization analysis......Page 572 9.4.4 Global summation and comparison......Page 573 9.5 Interactions with adaptation and vulnerability......Page 575 9.5.2 Mitigation and adaptation synergies......Page 576 9.6.1 Policies aimed at reducing deforestation......Page 578 9.6.3 Policies to improve forest management......Page 580 9.6.5 Strengthening the role of forest policies in mitigating climate change......Page 581 9.6.6.2 Potential non-permanence of carbon storage......Page 583 9.6.6.3 Additionality and baselines......Page 584 9.7.1 Conceptual aspects......Page 585 9.7.3 Implications of mitigation options on water, biodiversity and soil......Page 586 9.8 Technology, R&D, deployment, diffusion and transfer......Page 588 9.9 Long-term outlook......Page 589 REFERENCES......Page 590 10 Waste Management......Page 597 Table of Contents......Page 598 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 599 10.1 Introduction......Page 600 10.2.1 Waste generation......Page 603 10.2.2 Wastewater generation......Page 604 10.2.3 Development trends for waste and wastewater......Page 605 10.3.1 Global overview......Page 607 10.3.2 Landfill CH4: regional trends......Page 609 10.3.3 Wastewater and human sewage CH4 and N2O: regional trends......Page 610 10.4.1 Waste management and GHG-mitigation technologies......Page 611 10.4.2 CH4 management at landfills......Page 612 10.4.4 Biological treatment including composting, anaerobic digestion, and MBT (Mechanical Biological Treatment)......Page 613 10.4.6 Wastewater and sludge treatment......Page 614 10.4.7 Waste management and mitigation costs and potentials......Page 615 10.4.8 Fluorinated gases: end-of-life issues, data and trends in the waste sector......Page 618 10.5.1 Reducing landfill CH4 emissions......Page 619 10.5.2 Incineration and other thermal processes for waste-to-energy......Page 620 10.5.6 Non-climate policies affecting GHG emissions from waste......Page 621 10.6.1 Municipal solid waste management......Page 622 10.6.2 Wastewater management......Page 623 REFERENCES......Page 625 11 Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective......Page 631 Table of Contents......Page 632 Carbon prices and macro-economic costs of mitigation to 2030......Page 633 Spillover effects from Annex I action......Page 634 11.2.1 Cross-sectoral technological options......Page 635 11.2.2.1 Iron and nitrogen fertilization of the oceans......Page 636 11.3 Overall mitigation potential and costs, including portfolio analysis and cross-sectoral modelling......Page 637 11.3.1.2 The baseline......Page 638 11.3.1.3 Synthesizing the potentials from Chapters 4 to 10 involving electricity......Page 639 11.3.1.4 Synthesizing the potentials from Chapters 4 to 10 involving biomass......Page 640 Synthesis of biomass supply & demand......Page 641 11.3.1.5 Estimates of mitigation potentials from Chapters 4 to 10......Page 643 11.3.1.7 Conclusions of bottom-up potential estimates......Page 646 11.3.2 Comparing bottom-up and top-down sectoral potentials for 2030......Page 647 11.3.4 Regional cross-sectoral effects of greenhouse gas mitigation policies to 2025......Page 649 11.4.2 Policy analysis of the effects of the Kyoto Protocol......Page 654 11.4.3.1 Policy studies for the United States......Page 655 11.4.3.3 Policy studies for Europe......Page 656 11.4.4 Post-Kyoto studies......Page 658 11.4.4.1 A comparison of the macro-economic costs of mitigation to 2030 from modelling studies......Page 659 11.4.5 Differences between models......Page 661 11.5.1 Endogenous and exogenous technological development and diffusion......Page 662 11.5.2 Effects of modelling sectoral technologies on estimated mitigation costs......Page 664 11.5.3 The costs of mitigation with and without endogenous technological change......Page 665 11.6 From medium-term to long-term mitigation costs and potentials......Page 670 11.6.3 Price levels required for deep mid-century emission reductions: the wider evidence......Page 671 11.6.4 Complementary measures for deep emission reductions......Page 673 11.6.5 Capital stock and inertia determinants of transitions in the second quarter of the century......Page 674 11.6.6 Investment and incentive stability......Page 675 11.7.1 The nature and importance of spillover......Page 676 11.7.2.1 Equilibrium modelling of carbon leakage from the Kyoto Protocol......Page 677 11.7.4 Impact of mitigation action on competitiveness (trade, investment, labour, sector structure)......Page 678 11.7.5.1 Effects of Annex I action reported in the TAR......Page 679 11.7.6 Technological spillover......Page 680 11.8.1.1 Co-benefi ts of greenhouse gas mitigation on air pollution......Page 681 11.8.1.2 Co-benefi ts for human health......Page 682 11.8.1.5 Avoidance of air-pollution control costs......Page 685 11.8.1.7 Methane/ozone......Page 686 11.8.1.10 Practical examples of integrated strategies......Page 687 11.8.4 Summary......Page 688 11.9.1.1 Energy......Page 689 11.9.1.5 Agriculture and forestry......Page 690 REFERENCES......Page 691 Step 1: Baseline electricity consumption and emissions......Page 699 Step 3: The substitution of generating capacity with low-carbon capacity......Page 700 2. Sensitivity analysis for potentials in the electricity sector......Page 702 12 Sustainable Development and Mitigation......Page 703 Table of Contents......Page 704 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......Page 705 12.1.1 The two-way relationship between sustainable development and climate change......Page 707 12.1.2 Evolution and articulation of the concept of sustainable development......Page 708 12.1.3 Measurement of progress towards sustainable development......Page 710 12.2 Implications of development choices for climate change mitigation......Page 711 12.2.1 Multiplicity of plausible development pathways ahead, with different economic, social and environmental content......Page 712 12.2.1.1 Development paths as well as climate policies determine GHG emissions......Page 713 12.2.1.2 New global scenario analyses confirm the importance of development paths for mitigation......Page 715 12.2.1.3 Development paths can vary by regions and countries because of different priorities and conditions......Page 716 12.2.2 Lower emissions pathways are not necessarily associated with lower economic growth......Page 719 12.2.3 Changing development pathway requires working with multiple actors, at multiple scales......Page 720 12.2.3.1 State......Page 721 12.2.3.2 Market......Page 723 12.2.3.3 Civil society......Page 725 12.2.3.4 Interactions......Page 726 12.2.3.5 Policy implications......Page 728 12.2.4 Opportunities at the sectoral level to change development pathways towards lower emissions through development policies......Page 729 12.2.4.1 Energy......Page 730 12.2.4.2 Transportation and urban planning......Page 732 12.2.4.4 Macro-economy and trade......Page 733 12.2.4.5 Some general insights on the opportunities to change development pathways at the sectoral level......Page 734 12.2.4.6 Mainstreaming climate change into development choices: Setting priorities......Page 735 12.2.4.7 Operationalization of mainstreaming......Page 737 12.3 Implications of mitigation choices for sustainable development goals......Page 738 12.3.1.1 Energy demand sectors – Transport, Buildings and Industry......Page 741 12.3.1.3 Cross-sectoral sustainable development impacts......Page 742 12.3.3 Agriculture sector......Page 743 12.3.4 Waste and wastewater management sector......Page 744 12.4 Gaps in knowledge and future research needs......Page 745 REFERENCES......Page 746 13 Policies, Instruments and Co-operative Arrangements......Page 757 Table of Contents......Page 758 National policies......Page 759 Implications for global climate change policy......Page 760 13.1.1 Types of policies, measures, instruments and co-operative arrangements......Page 762 13.1.2.2 Cost-effectiveness......Page 763 13.1.2.4 Institutional feasibility......Page 764 13.2.1.1 Regulations and standards......Page 765 13.2.1.2 Taxes and charges......Page 767 13.2.1.3 Tradable permits......Page 768 13.2.1.4 Voluntary agreements......Page 771 13.2.1.5 Subsidies and incentives......Page 772 13.2.1.6 Research and Development......Page 774 13.2.1.7 Information instruments......Page 776 13.2.2.1 National policy interactions/linkages and packages......Page 777 13.2.2.2 Criteria assessment......Page 778 13.3.3 Proposals for climate change agreements......Page 780 13.3.3.1 Goals......Page 781 13.3.3.2 Participation......Page 785 13.3.3.3 Implications of regime stringency: linking goals, participation and timing......Page 787 Regional costs......Page 788 13.3.3.4.2 Flexibility provisions......Page 789 13.3.3.4.3 Coordination/harmonization of policies......Page 793 13.3.3.4.4 Technology......Page 795 13.3.3.5 Financing......Page 796 13.3.3.5.2 Direct international transfers......Page 797 13.3.3.5.3 GEF and the multilateral development banks (MDBs)......Page 798 13.3.3.7 Compliance......Page 799 13.3.3.9 Negotiating process......Page 800 13.3.4 Evaluating international climate change agreements......Page 801 13.3.4.4 Institutional feasibility......Page 802 13.4.1 Sub-national initiatives......Page 803 13.4.2 Corporate and NGO actions......Page 804 13.4.3 Litigatio The Third Volume Of The Fourth Assessment Report Of The Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (ipcc) Provides An In-depth Analysis Of The Costs And Benefits Of Different Approaches To Mitigating And Avoiding Climate Change. It Includes A Detailed Assessment Of Costs And Potentials Of Mitigation Technologies And Practices, Implementation Barrier, And Policy Options For The Sectors: Energy Supply, Transport, Building, Industry, Agriculture, Forestry And Waste Management.--publisher's Description. Summary For Policymakers -- Technical Summary -- Introduction -- Framing Issues -- Issues Related To Mitigation In The Long Term Context -- Energy Supply -- Transport And Its Infrastructure -- Residential And Commercial Buildings -- Industry -- Agriculture -- Forestry -- Waste Management -- Mitigation From A Cross Sectoral Perspective -- Sustainable Development And Mitigation -- Policies, Instruments And Co-operative Agreement. Edited By Bert Metz ... [et Al.]. Published For The Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Also Issued Electronically Via The World Wide Web.