Civil Society and Political Reform in Lebanon and Libya: Transition and constraint (Routledge Studies in Mediterranean Politics)

Lebanon and Libya have undergone critical political events in recent years. However, demands for reform from civic institutions during these transitions have not led to concrete political decisions. Civil Society and Political Reform in Lebanon and Libya reveals the deeply-entrenched historical patterns and elements of continuity that have led to path dependent outcomes in the political transitions of both countries. Motivated by personal experiences as an activist in Lebanon, the author draws together a wide range of data from participant observations, nation-wide surveys, interviews and focus groups in a careful analysis of these two civil society-led reform campaigns. The study demonstrates how the combination of weak states and power-sharing agreements marginalizes civic organisations and poses institutional constraints on the likelihood of reform. Written by an active participant in the political events discussed, this book offers new insight into two countries which present comparable and informative case studies. As such, it is a valuable resource for students, scholars and policymakers interested in civil society, politics and reform in the Middle East and North Africa. Cover 1 Title 4 Copyright 5 Contents 6 List of illustrations 9 Preface 10 1 Introducing the journey 14 1.1 The researcher in me: the research question and the aim of the book 14 1.2 Why Lebanon and Libya? 19 1.3 Definitions and key concepts 22 1.4 The significance of civil society and reform to transitions 27 1.5 Research design and methodology 29 2 Explaining “partially” critical junctures 40 2.1 Introduction 40 2.2 Uprisings, reform as “potential” critical junctures 41 2.3 Implications of a weak state 44 2.4 “Communal” power-sharing systems 47 2.5 Defining and problematising civil society 50 2.6 Conclusion: how path dependence (re)produces elements of continuity 55 3 Lebanon: intricacies of a sectarian power-sharing system 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Key “Lebanese-centric”terms 64 3.3 Path dependency under the Ottoman Empire and French colonialism 67 3.4 National pact and breakdown of the state (1943–1975) 69 3.5 The civil war (1975–1990): “militant” sectarianism and un-sharingof power 72 3.6 Post-warLebanon (1990–2003): the Tai’f Agreement and Syrian patronage 74 3.7 Post-Syrian Lebanon: sectarianism enshrined (2004–2010) 76 3.8 Power-sharingintricacies in the case of Lebanon 79 4 Activism and electoral non-reformin Lebanon 89 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Background to the Lebanese electoral process (1992–2004) 90 4.3 Elections post-Syria: partially competitive process and partially representative results 95 4.4 Activism for electoral reform: the civil campaign for electoral reform (2006–2010) 102 4.5 Insights from the 2009 elections: old practices in a new law 108 4.6 Conclusions and implications of non-reform 110 5 Libya: intricacies of a stateless society 119 5.1 Introduction 119 5.2 Libyan-centric terms 120 5.3 Libya under the Ottoman Empire, and Italian colonisation 125 5.4 Libya’s 1951 independence and first constitution 127 5.5 Gadhafi’s regime (1969–2011) 130 5.6 Preamble to the 2011 Libyan uprising 138 6 Libya’s activists’ struggle for a new constitution 149 6.1 Introduction 149 6.2 Opening up Pandora’s Box: power-sharing indisguise 151 6.3 Civic activism in the “new” Libya 156 6.4 Citizens’ voices and priorities 161 6.5 Reform limitations of path dependence in Libya 167 7 Moving past “partially” critical junctures 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2. Comparing elements of continuity 176 7.3 Questions for the future: can civil society move past “partially” critical junctures? 184 Annexes 191 Annex 1 – List of interviewees (in alphabetical order) 191 Annex 2 – Libya survey questions 193 Annex 3 – Lebanon electoral observation methodology 197 Annex 4 – Note on transliteration 200 Index 201 Transition and constraint