شهر فرهنگ ۲۶۰۰ قبل از میلاد: تاریخ و باستان‌شناسی اولیه میان‌رودان در ابوسلابیخ

City of culture, 2600 BC presents the city which lies beneath the surface of the archaeological site of Abu Salabikh in south Iraq, first investigated in the 1960s and excavated in the 1970s and 1980s. It starts from the facts on the ground, and shows how the material remains can resurrect the city, illuminated by its library of literary and lexical texts, and documents from institutional administration. The archaeology and the textual data reinforce each other and together convey a picture of the city and its architecture, agricultural and industrial enterprises, and social structure. These are all integrated with our wider knowledge of south Mesopotamia at this time, and with the world view given us by the rich body of Sumerian literature – myths, epics and religious texts, but also homespun secular philosophy – to create a vivid image of city life in 2600 BC. This is an account of one city and what it tells us. Cities were the defining components of early Mesopotamia, acting as the base for all economic, social, political and cultural activity. With their shared languages and traditions they belonged to a single cultural order, and as with other similar groupings of individual urban centres – whether in Greece, Italy or China – the rivalry and emulation generates a vibrant but varied and innovative world. The book concludes therefore with a more general account of “The Land” (kalam) in the pre-imperial Early Dynastic era, and with an assessment of the nature of the early Mesopotamian urban scene. Nicholas Postgate taught Akkadian at SOAS in London from 1967-71 and then moved to the British School of Archaeology in Baghdad until 1980 when he returned to teach Mesopotamian history and archaeology at Cambridge, and later Sumerian and Akkadian language and literature, retiring in 2013. His main archaeological project in Iraq was Abu Salabikh, though he also worked at Tell Madhhur and under Diana Kirkbride at Umm Dabaghiyah. After Iraq became out of bounds in 1990 he directed the Bronze and Iron Age excavation at Kilise Tepe in Rough Cilicia from 1994 to 1998 and again in 2007-2012. Alongside his books, Early Mesopotamia: society and economy at the dawn of history (1992) and Bronze Age bureaucracy: writing and the practice of government in Assyria (2013), he has edited Middle and Neo-Assyrian archives, co-edited the Concise Dictionary of Akkadian, and written articles on various historical topics, and recently on Sumerian grammar. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Information 4 Contents 7 List of Figures 11 The dig team, 1976. 17 Figure 1.1. South Mesopotamia in the mid-Third Millennium. Water courses all subject to correction. 23 Figure 1.2. Visitors to the site survey, 1973. Khalaf Taleb al-Angoud, McGuire Gibson, Julian Reade, Hilary Stuart-Williams, S. Nan Shaw, Diana Kirkbride Helbaek, Nahidh Abdurrazzaq, Miguel Civil, Bedr Abbas. 26 Figure 1.3. The central mounds after the 1973 survey, showing Chicago Areas A and E. (Iraq 38: 136). 27 Figure 1.4. Composite cross-section through Main Mound and West Mound, showing water beds (T.J. Wilkinson Iraq 52: 81, Fig. 5) 28 Figure 1.5. Satellite view of site, north to the top. Showing location of 5G and 6H Houses. Image thanks to Elizabeth Stone, courtesy Digital Globe Corporation. 29 Figure 1.6. Late vertical ceramic drain sunk into south corridor (photo Postgate & Moon 1984: 6; plan Iraq 38: 144 in 6G65b. Cf. similar drain in 6G76 ASE 4 Fig. 1.27, location Fig. 1.24). 30 Figure 1.7. Dust storm approaching, looking east from camp. 1983. 31 Figure 1.8. Miniature wadi, on Main Mound, showing disintegrating sherds. 32 Figure 2.1. Site with outlying mounds (ASE 1 p. 2) 34 Figure 2.2. Area E 1963-65, 1975-76 with completed plan of Southern Unit. (Iraq 39: 279) 35 Figure 2.3. Strip cleared across the city wall at the north end of Main Mound, looking north. The north and south faces of the wall are delimited by the dark deposits each end of the trench. (Iraq 49: Pl. XXIVd; plan p.108 Fig. 4, square 3J). 36 Figure 2.4. Section along north side of squares 5I78 and 5I79, showing late tip lines sloping off outer face of earlier city walls. (Iraq 46: 105 Fig. 6; plan p. 102) 37 Figure 2.5. The Main Mound plan after conclusion of clearance programme in 1989. (Iraq 52: 96 Fig. 1.) 38 Figure 2.6. Surface clearance in progress on the West Mound, 1977. 39 Figure 2.7. West Mound: ED I architectural layout, 1977-8. (after ASE 1 Fig. 354). 40 Figure 3.1. 5G House to show rooms and soundings. The room labels suggest the principal activities but some rooms are likely to have been multi-functional (after ASE 5 Plate 6) 45 Figure 3.2. Excavation of 6H House in progress: Rooms 67 and Grave 234 behind, viewed from the west. 46 Figure 3.3. 6H House Level IC (after ASE 5 Plate 12). 46 Figure 3.4. Gudea, ensi of Lagaš. Statue B: the temple plan on his lap, with a graduated ruler faintly visible in front. © RMN-Grand Palais (Musée du Louvre)/ Philippe Fuseau 48 Figure 3.5. Ur-Nammu stele: upper register with measuring rod and line. Lower register, Ur-Nammu with building tools and basket over his shoulder. © Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image 141417. 49 Figure 3.6. Ur-Nanše of Lagaš in royal builder role, with his family all identified by name. (de Sarzec 1884-1912: Planche 2 bis). 51 Figure 3.7. Making mud-bricks for the excavation house, down by the canal. September 1976. 51 Figure 3.8. Plano-convex bricks: brick-lay in south wall of Gr 244 (ASE 5: 288 (Fig. 6.2). Cf. ASE 5: p. 289 Photo 6.107, p. 291 Photo 6.111. 52 Figure 3.9. Plano-convex bricks: the east wall of Room 39 in the Southern Unit, from west (1976). 52 Figure 3.10. Plano-convex bricks: earlier (Level II) east wall of courtyard in 6H House, as visible in the north side of Grave 246 (ASE 5: p. 304 Photo 6.123) 53 Figure 3.11. Akkadian period seal showing Enki seated within the waters of the apsu. BM 89771; Boehmer 1965: Abb. 501). © The Trustees of the British Museum. 54 Figure 3.12. Drainage sluice at west side of 6G86, with thick bitumen water-proofing. Note reddish baked bricks. 54 Figure 3.13. Cross-section through deep sequence of plastered floor lines in corridor south of S. Unit (6G65). 1986. 55 Figure 3.14. Cross-section through deep sequence of striated ashy lines in open space south of Area A (5I31; see Fig. 9.2). 55 Figure 3.15. Shell ornament, showing sandal with straps (AbS 2576. ASE 5: F99 Photo 5.13, Plate 41). L. 2.2 cm. 56 Figure 3.16. Selected washing slabs from Graves 1, 26, 37, and 71 (two). ASE 2 Pl. XXVId. 57 Figure 3.17. Ceramics from Grave 26: four-part washing set on right. (ASE 2 Pl. XXIIc) 58 Figure 3.18. Washing set and slab in situ Grave 96 (detail from ASE 2 Pl. XXb). 59 Figure 3.19. Grave 96 five-part washing set after conservation (ASE 2 Pl. XXVIc). 59 Figure 3.20. Metal washing set (selebçe): Baghad suq near Al-Mustansiriyah, 2021. 60 Figure 3.21. Fragment of door plaque AbS 2709, from Room 64 of 6H House. (ASE 5: 171 F51 Photo 5.4). 61 Figure 3.22. The sign IG = door (after IAS 493). Rotated to original orientation: note diagonal struts and V-shaped base of pole. 61 Figure 3.23. Door socket 5IS:117 from 5I66 sub-surface, no architectural context. Upper surface flat with central depression, lower surface gently rounded. 24.5 x 18.5 cm., Th. 5.5 cm. 62 Figure 3.24. Oven FI 75/5 at south end of Room 47 (6G55d), viewed from north. 2.10 x 1.80 m. Plan: Fig. 2.2. Note fire-reddened brickwork. 64 Figure 3.25. Baked clay hearth FI 76/1 in situ beneath later east wall of Room 62. 6G63:191. Max. W. ~60 cm. (Iraq 39: 283.) 65 Figure 3.26. Inverted jar top (5IS:125) serving as hearth FI 81/16 (ED II). 5I87 sub-surface. Rim diam. 14 cm. (Plan: Iraq 44:124 fig.7). 66 Figure 3.27. Bitumen coated threshold between Rooms 6 and 8 in 5G House. (ASE 5 p. 42 Photo 2.5.) 67 Figure 3.28a. Incantation against internal illness IAS 549 (AbS 2714 from drain in Room 68). (Photo Iraq 52 Pl. XVd.) 68 Figure 3.28b. Copy of IAS 549. (Edition M. Krebernik, Iraq 71: 11 with copy p. 31.) 68 Figure 3.29. Digitized plan of SE sector of square 5G (V. Herring), 10 m squares. 69 Figure 3.30. 50 x 50 m sector of Area A, to show use of space (K. Spence. Matthews & Postgate 1994: 54.) 70 Figure 3.31. Section through green and orange floor plasters at south end of Room 168 in South-East Complex. (ASE 5: 4 Fig. 1.1). 75 Figure 3.32. Lapis lazuli cylinder seal AbS 1950, showing furniture in use (H. 2.8, Diam. 1.1 cm). From S end of Grave 176 (see Fig.4.10) 75 Figure 4.1. Postholes in floor overlying Grave 1 (SE corner of grave shaft at top of shot). For cross-section through two post-holes sunk from different floors see ASE 2:20 and photo Pl. Ib. (ASE 2: Pl. Ic) 76 Figure 4.2a. Grave 1 inhumation, looking west. (ASE 2 Pl. IIc) 77 Figure 4.2b. Plan of Grave 1 inhumation. For numbered plan see ASE 2 Fig.8 (p. 26). 77 Figure 4.3. Grave goods from Grave 1. (Iraq 38 Pl. XXIIa) 78 Figure 4.4. Grave 1: secondary deposit in NE corner of shaft (stemmed dish, conical bowl and small jars). (ASE 2: 23-4 Nos. 6-9) 79 Figure 4.5. Grave 1: at left, NE secondary deposit. At right SW deposit: jar (AbS 579) supported on tripod feet (AbS 814) [‘feet’ probably wrong way up]. (ASE 2 Pl. XXIIb) 79 Figure 4.6. Room 39 with grave shafts (from N to S: Graves 88, 1, 2 and 27). Late ash pit visible at left. 80 Figure 4.7. Grave 234 cleared to base. Looking north. (ASE 5: 253 Photo 6.66). 81 Figure 4.8. Jewellery from floor of Gr 234 (AbS 2396). (ASE 5: 258 Photo 6.75) 82 Figure 4.9. Grave 185 central sector, looking south. (For plan see Iraq 49: 106 Fig. 4.) 82 Figure 4.10. Grave 176 finds: foreground 2 conch shells (AbS 1959, 2000); centre 5 copper pins, spindle and distaff crossed (see Figs. 7.2-3), rectangular copper plaque (AbS 1996); top left 2 silver roundels (AbS 1960-61), 2 cylinder seals (lapis lazuli A 83 Figure 4.10a. Grave 176: Spindle and distaff in situ (see Figs 7.2-3) 84 Figure 4.10b. Grave 176: Robert Payton attending to upright-handled jar (AbS 1972). 84 Figure 4.11. Javelin heads from shaft of Grave 80. (ASE 2 Grave 80 nos. 4-7) 85 Figure 4.12. Teams of equids towing battle carts advancing and in action. Standard of Ur (Woolley 1934 Pl. 92). © The Trustees of the British Museum. 86 Figure 4.13. Grave 162 (N): pair of equids. (Iraq 46, 96). 89 Figure 4.14. Grave 246 double inhumation before and after removal of overlying plank impressions. (ASE 5 Plate 29 Plan 44) 91 Figure 4.15. Grave 246 child skeletons. (ASE 5 p. 206 Photo 6.126) 91 Figure 4.16. Grave 246 grave goods (ASE 5 p. 308 Photo 6.130). Note stone cosmetic holders and child-size vessels. 92 Figure 4.17. Six sheep figurines from the fill of the hearth in Room 1 of 5G House (FI89/14). (ASE 5 p. 184 Photo 5.36) 96 Figure 5.1. Section through the Ash Tip, North Baulk of 6G66 looking North. 97 Figure 5.2. Section from Southern Unit through corridor and Ash Tip. (Iraq 38:145.) 98 Figure 5.3. Sealing from Ash Tip with lion stamp seal impression (6G76:763). (ASE 4: 48 Fig. 2.14) 99 Figure 5.4. Limestone stamp seal with lion head (AbS 704). From Room 52 in 6G74. (Iraq 42 pl. XId) 99 Figure 5.5. Selected miniature jars from the Ash Tip. 100 Figure 5.6. Selected human figurines from the Ash Tip. 101 Figure 5.7. Selected animal figurines from the Ash Tip. 101 Figure 5.8. South-East Complex (1989). Excavated walls in black, walls planned from surface hatched. 102 Figure 5.9. Moving the 1965 spoil heap from over the South-East Complex (view from SE in 1989). 103 Figure 5.10. Stemmed dish from Grave 51 (AbS 947). The missing dish was supported by four bulls, the slits excised each side of the stem represent a temple doorway and in the square windows above each were two minute clay doves (not showing in this photo) 105 Figure 6.1a. List of field prebends (IAS 518). Obverse. (Iraq 40, 105-7.) 113 Figure 6.1b. Hand copy of IAS 518. See Table 6.1. 113 Figure 6.2. Ur III field plans. (After Liverani 1990: 163 Fig. 11) 122 Figure 6.3. Equid skeleton cast onto Ash Tip. (Iraq 38: Pl. XXIVa) 124 Figure 6.4. Tell al-‘Ubaid milking scene. Limestone figures set in a black shale background (see Hall and Woolley 1927: 91, Pl. XXXI). Iraq Museum. 125 Figure 6.5. Michael Charles operating flotation machine next to the canal in 1985. 126 Figure 6.6a. Account of sheep and goats, totalling 13,972 animals (IAS 519 Obverse). (Iraq 40: 106-7) 129 Figure 6.6b. IAS 519 Reverse; hand copy. The scribe uses the Akkadian numbers for 100 (mi-at) and 1000 (li-im). 129 Figure 7.1. Spindle whorl AbS 1319. Diam. 4.2 cm, H. 1.5 cm. The underside is flat and undecorated. 136 Figure 7.2. Copper spindle AbS 1994. South end of Grave 176, found crossed with AbS 1995 (Fig. 7.3). L. 20.3 cm; Diam. of disc 3.8 cm. (See Fig. 4.10a.) 137 Figure 7.3. Copper distaff AbS 1995. Grave 176, crossed with the spindle (AbS 1994). L. 23.8 cm; Diam. of disc 2.4 cm. (See Fig. 4.10a.) 137 Figure 7.4. Woven cloth textile impression in Grave 182. 139 Figure 7.5. Statue of Maništušu, showing robe with tasselled fringe © RMN-Grand Palais (Musée du Louvre) / Mathieu Rabeau 140 Figure 7.6. Ur III seal of Ur-Nusku, merchant (tam2-kar2), in long fringed robe, being introduced to the enthroned deity by his personal goddess, who both wear the traditional flounced robe. (Porada 1948 No. 277). 141 Figure 7.7. Late ED I pit kiln FI 81/15 cross-sectioned, showing vitrified walls. Internal dimensions 1.60 x 1.90 m. Location: Iraq 44:124 Fig. 7 NW corner of 5I47. 143 Figure 7.8. North end of Main Mound looking north in 1988, with potter’s house (square 4I00) in foreground. Grave 249 shaft bottom right. (Cf. Iraq 52 Pl. XVIIb) 144 Figure 7.9. Stratified clinker and ash rich kiln debris cut through by shaft of Grave 249 (in foreground), and (in background) lying on floor sealing grave. (Iraq 52 Pl. XVIIa) 144 Figure 7.10a-c. Three sealings from the clinker layers shown in Fig. 7.9. Top to bottom: AbS 2858, AbS 2847, AbS 2849. 145 Figure 7.11a. Ceramic disc in situ on floor (bisected by shaft of Grave 249). 146 Figure 7.11b. Ceramic disc 4I00:9. Note central hole and small perforations to drain excess water. Diam. 66 cm; Th. 4.2 cm. 146 Figure 7.12. Grave 249 inhumation beneath floor of Room 90 of potter’s house. (Iraq 52: Pl. XIVd.) 147 Figure 7.13. Pattern of sample specimens in SW corner of Grave 1, including black and white pebbles, a flint blade, one small and two larger cockle shells. See Fig. 4.2b inset. (ASE 2: 26 (Fig. 8), 36-7 nos. 203-217 (AbS 1039); Pl. IIId) 148 Figure 7.14. Quartzite(?) borer for stone bowl manufacture (AbS 2551). Note concentric scoring on sides. Max. diam. 8.3 cm; Diam. of base 3.4 cm. From 6D44 surface (South Mound). 150 Figure 7.15. Stone bowl from Grave 1. AbS 705 (ASE 2 Pl. XXVIIIa). Diam. of rim 15.2 cm. 150 Figure 7.16. Two flint sickle blades set in bitumen, from the sewer in 6H House Room 68 (6H91:45). (ASE 5: 175 Photo 5.9) 154 Figure 8.1. Vase AbS 1004 in situ. (Just below the mound surface, overlying the brickwork of the NW wall of Room 112 in square 6G38c.) (ASE 3:67 no. 321) 158 Figure 8.2. The jewellery which had been stored in AbS 1004. (Iraq 38: 158) 159 Figure 8.3. Lapis beads from AbS 1004: recumbent calf (AbS 975), vase (AbS 963), eagle (AbS 955), recumbent bull (AbS 977), and shell(?) (AbS 978). 159 Figure 8.4. Grave 130 grave goods, from top left: cylinder seal (AbS 1708); 1 central silver, 2 copper, 2 lapis lazuli beads forming the necklace (AbS 1697); silver roundel (AbS 1554); middle row: silver eye patch (AbS 1733, on gauze backing); silver sand 163 Figure 8.5. Grave 130: long silver and lapis lazuli beads in situ below jaw (see Fig. 8.4). 164 Figure 9.1. General view of Area A in 1976 looking north. Rooms 3, 4 and 7 on right to south of ranging-pole; 5I 31 sounding bottom left; flint pit at surface to east of sounding. 173 Figure 9.2. Area A 1976: deep sounding in 5I31. Water table in main sounding. Grave 81 in extension to the SE (top left in picture). 173 Figure 9.3a. Plan of Area A (West half) 174 Figure 9.3b. Plan of Area A (East half) 175 Figure 9.4. The landscape with sites surrounding (Wilkinson 1990: 76 Fig. 1). 181 Figure 10.1. Stone bowl sherd with inscription of Mesalim (Luckenbill 1930 No. 5). Me-DI / lugal kiš / e2:SAR / bur mu-gi4/ -kisal- / NIG2-en5-si adabki (see Cooper 1986: 19 for the signs in l. 6 omitted in this copy). 190 Figure 10.2. Stone bowl sherd from Nippur, with dedication to Inana by a herdsman (PA.USAN); bowl headed bur (7N-213 Goetze 1970: 45, 53). 190 Figure 10.3. Warka vase detail of upper registers. The first figure standing on the bull holds a damaged EN sign, presumably indicating his ruling office. (Heinrich 1938b: Tafel 38) 192 Figure 10.4. North and South Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium to show Tuttul on the Euphrates (after Postgate 1994e) 195 Figure 10.5. Cylinder seal showing Ištar with weapons (Boehmer Abb. 382). A27903: Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 196 Figure 10.6. Inlaid wall plaque from Kiš Palace A. (Langdon 1924, Pl. XXXVI.) 197 Figure 10.7. Land allocation text IAS 551 from 6H House. (Iraq 71: 12, 31) 202 Figure 10.8. South Mound general plan. (Matthews and Matthews 2017: 367 Fig. 2) (the 20x20m squares are erroneously drawn at twice the scale of the main plan) 203 Figure 10.9. South Mound plan of palace walls at surface 1989. (Matthews and Matthews 2017: 366 Fig. 1) 204 List of Tables 16 Table 6.1. Prebend allocations in IAS 518 114 Table 6.2 A-D Land holdings in tablets from Area E14 116 Table 6.3 Land holdings in IAS 552 from the 6H House (for IAS 553-4 see Appendix 3) 119 Table 7.1. Abu Salabikh ‘spindle whorls’ 137 Table 7.2. IAS 490 141 Table 7.3. Stone cubes 149 Acknowledgements 17 Team members 17 Donors 18 Representatives 18 Advice to the Reader 19 Elevations 19 Metrological terms 19 Note on the location of finds 19 The site grid 19 Transcription and translation 19 Abbreviations 20 Introduction 21 Chapter 1 23 The site and the environment 23 The recent landscape and the site’s location and discovery (Fig. 1.1) 23 The Chicago expedition 25 The British School survey 26 Site formation 28 Chapter 2 33 The mounds and the city layout 33 The Main Mound 33 The West Mound 37 The Uruk Mound 39 The South Mound (Fig. 10.8) 40 Outlying mounds 41 The layout of the city on the Main Mound 41 The city wall(s) 42 Thoroughfares 42 Chapter 3 45 Buildings and builders 45 Houses 45 House construction 47 Site preparation and laying foundations 47 Bricks and mortar 50 The raw materials: clay and plaster. 53 Floors 54 Walls 58 Doors and door plaques 60 Door sockets 61 Stairs and second stories 62 Fire installations 63 Wash rooms 65 Drains and sewers 66 The inhabitants 68 House plans and courtyards 71 Reception rooms 72 Reception rooms at Abu Salabikh 74 Chapter 4 76 Burials and memorials 76 Burials – below ground. 76 Grave goods 83 Equid burials 85 The human occupants 89 Memorials – above ground 90 The shrine in the 5G House 95 Chapter 5 97 The temple and the tablets 97 The temple 97 The temple Ash Tip 97 Figurines 100 Possible location of the temple and associated rooms 102 The Southern Unit 106 Temple activities - writing 108 Chapter 6 112 The temple estates 112 Temple activities – fields and villages 112 Irrigation 120 Agricultural practices and equipment 121 Cultivation 123 Traction, trampling and transport 123 Donkeys, onagers and their offspring 124 Crop processing, botany and food 125 Pigs 128 Reeds and palms 128 The temple flocks and their shepherds 129 Consumption 133 Chapter 7 135 Textiles, clay and stone 135 Crafts and craftsmen 135 Textiles and other fabrics 136 Wool and goat hair (also flax) 136 Weaving 138 The felter 140 Pots and potters 142 Stones 148 Stones and stone workers 148 Stone bowls 149 Mortars 151 Grindstones 152 Flint and obsidian 153 Chapter 8 156 Ornamental stones and metals 156 Shells 156 Ornamental stones 157 Foreign traders 161 Silver and gold 163 Silver as a means of payment 165 Copper 166 Chapter 9 170 The ensi and his city 170 The title and role of the ensi 170 The Area A building. 172 The ensi and the countryside 177 Agricultural regimes 178 Villages in the landscape 180 Villages in the texts 180 The ensi and the populace 182 Legal documents and the law 184 The ensi and place(s) of judgement 184 Chapter 10 189 Kingships and patron deities 189 Some ceremonial bowls 189 Kingship, the gift of a deity 191 The geographical terminology 198 A king at Abu Salabikh 201 The South Mound 202 Chapter 11 205 Cities and states: recognition and rivalry 205 Environmental determinism 205 The South Mesopotamian world 205 The Uruk phenomenon and its heritage 206 From Uruk to Early Dynastic 207 Early Dynastic cities: writing and sealing 207 Early Dynastic cities: the Šuruppak texts 208 Mutual recognition 209 City-states, peer polities, or ESMs 211 The Mesopotamian scene 213 Chapter 12 215 Abu Salabikh in context 215 Wielders of power – kings and ensis 215 Temple, palace and city 216 Inter city rivalry and collaboration 217 Religion 218 North and south 220 The final years 221 Appendix 1 222 Ereš and Nisaba 222 Akkade Dynasty 222 Early Dynastic evidence 222 Old Babylonian and later 223 Ur III Dynasty 223 Alternative proposals 224 Ereš in mythology 224 Appendix 2 225 ki.en-gi 225 Appendix 3 227 Records of land allocations 227 Appendix 4 229 The profession PA.USAN 229 Bibliographical matters 231 Abu Salabikh Excavations 1-5 231 Preliminary excavation reports in Iraq 231 Publications about the site 231 Various studies on material from the Early Dynastic mounds 231 Abbreviations 233 Bibliography 234 Early Mesopotamia,Urban plan,Domestic Architecture,Agriculture,Industry,City-state Politics,Cuneiform Library