Ciomadul (Csomád), The Youngest Volcano in the Carpathians : Volcanism, Palaeoenvironment, Human Impact

This book delivers the present state-of-the-art of scientific characteristics of the unique Ciomadul volcano (Romania, East-Central Europe) from as many aspects as possible.. Multidisciplinary research results obtained on this geologically young volcanic complex are presented to a wider audience (geologists, volcanologists, botanists, archaeologists, historians and teachers). Moreover, the book provides information at a general level for interested laypersons and decision-makers. The first part of the book, after summarizing the research history of Ciomadul, presents the details of the volcanism and related topics (volcanology, geology, landscape evolution, minerals, post-volcanic activity and spa culture) in eight chapters; the second part deals with the palaeo-environmental issues of the larger area, along with human history, in nine chapters.ISBN : 9783030891398 Preface Acknowledgements Contents About the Editors Volcanic Eruptions, Landscape Evolution and Postvolcanic Phenomena 1 History of Research: Geoscientific Exploration of the Ciomadul Hills Abstract 1.1 Geographic Setting 1.2 Medieval to Early Modern Written Records of Ciomadul Hills 1.3 Getting to Know the Geology and Volcanology of Ciomadul 1.3.1 History of Geological and Volcanological Research 1.3.2 Age of the Last Volcanic Eruptions 1.3.3 Exploration of Mofettes and Mineral Waters 1.4 Limnology, Plant and Animal Geography, Landscape History, and Tourism 1.4.1 Limnology 1.4.2 Plant and Animal Geography 1.4.3 Landscape History 1.4.4 Tourism 2 Introduction to the Tectonic Evolution of the Southeast Carpathians Abstract 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Carpathian Mountains and Their SE Bend Zone 2.3 Tectonic Processes in the SE Carpathians During the Last 8 Million Years 2.4 The Link Between Tectonics and Magmatism in the SE Carpathians 2.5 Implications for Natural Hazards 2.6 Conclusions 3 Evolution of the Ciomadul Volcanic Field—Lava Domes and Explosive Eruptions Abstract 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Geographical Setting of Ciomadul Volcano 3.3 Lava Domes: Formation, Eruptive Activity and Degradation 3.4 Explosive Eruptions and Products 3.5 Dating the Volcanic Rocks—Methods and Results 3.5.1 Morphometric Dating 3.5.2 Conventional K–Ar Dating 3.5.3 Gillot-Cassignol K–Ar Dating 3.5.4 Zircon (U-Th)/He Dating 3.5.5 Radiocarbon (14C) Dating 3.5.6 Luminescence Dating 3.6 Eruptive Activity: Long Term Versus Short Term Eruption Rates 3.7 Summary—Volcanic History in the Light of Landscape Evolution 4 Petrology of Ciomadul Volcano: The Rock Record Abstract 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Petrograpy of the Ciomadul Volcanic Rocks 4.2.1 Macroscopic Description 4.2.1.1 Lava Dome Rocks 4.2.1.2 Pyroclastic Rocks 4.2.2 Microscopic Description 4.2.2.1 Phenocrysts 4.2.2.2 Groundmass 4.2.2.3 Pumice Petrography 4.3 Geochemistry of Ciomadul Volcanic Rocks 4.3.1 Mineral Chemistry 4.3.1.1 Lava Dome Dacites 4.3.1.2 Pumice 4.4 Bulk-Rock Geochemistry of Ciomadul Volcanic Rocks 4.4.1 Major Element Analysis 4.4.2 Trace Element Analysis 4.4.3 Radiogenic Isotopes 4.5 Petrogenetic Origin of the Ciomadul Volcanic Rocks 4.5.1 Geodynamic Context 4.5.2 Magma Genesis 4.5.3 Magmatic Differentiation 4.5.4 Eruption-Triggering Mechanisms 4.6 Summary 5 Gone with the Wind: Dispersal of Ciomadul Tephra Abstract 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Principles of Tephrochronology 5.3 Detection of Tephra in Geological Archives 5.4 Identification of Tephra via Glass Chemical Fingerprinting 5.5 Glass Chemical Composition of Ciomadul Tephras 5.6 Dispersal of Ciomadul Tephras: Modern and Past Wind Patterns in Romania 5.6.1 Local to Regional Distribution of Ciomadul Tephras 5.6.2 Searching for Ciomadul Tephras in Distal and Ultra-Distal Sites 5.7 Findings of Other European Tephras in Romanian Geological Archives 6 Palaeogeography: Syn- and Post-eruptive Landscape Evolution Around Ciomadul Abstract 6.1 Introduction 6.3 The Olt Valley Between the Lower Ciuc and Braşov Basins 6.3.1 The Sedimentary Profile at Tuşnadul Nou (TSN) 6.3.2 Tuşnadul Nou—An Unique Profile for Tracing the Most Recent Eruptive Activity of Ciomadul? 6.4 Sedimentary Profiles in the Olt Valley South of Băile Tuşnad 6.4.1 The Ghidfalău (GHI) Sedimentary and Volcaniclastic Profile 6.4.2 Distinguishing Between the Two Superimposed Lahar Units at Ghidfalău 6.4.3 The Cause of Laharic Flows at Ciomadul? 6.4.4 Linking Lahars at Ghidfalău to Eruptions from Ciomadul? 6.5 Summary 7 Ciomadul Volcano: Dormant or Extinct? Abstract 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Summary of the Eruptive History of Ciomadul Volcano 7.3 Extinct or Dormant? A Short History of the Subject 7.4 Ciomadul Media Coverage 7.5 Eruptive Capability of Ciomadul 7.6 Towards Solving the Dilemma 7.7 Summary 8 Minerals, Mofettes, Mineral Waters and Spa Culture at Ciomadul Abstract 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Getting to Know Ciomadul’s Post-volcanic Activity 8.3 The Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits of Ciomadul 8.3.1 Sulphides 8.3.2 Sulphates 8.3.3 Native Sulphur 8.3.4 Carbonates and Oxides 8.4 Gas Emissions and Mofettes 8.5 Spa Culture at Ciomadul 8.5.1 Tradition of Baths and Mofettes 8.5.2 Overview of the Most Famous Occurrences 8.6 Summary Palaeoenvironment and Human History 9 Palaeoenvironmental Changes During the Last Glacial Period in the Ciomadul Hills Abstract 9.1 Introduction—Shelter in Volcanic Craters 9.2 Research History 9.3 The Sf. Ana Crater Lake 9.4 Radiometric Dating of the Sf. Ana Lake Sediments 9.5 Ice Age Tundra, Permafrost and Taiga Forests of Ciomadul 9.6 Afforestation of the Crater Slope 9.7 Mosses and Peat 9.8 Non-Biting Midge (Chironomid) Remains in Lake Sf. Ana 9.9 Ice Age Refugia in the Eastern Carpathians 9.10 Summary 10 Limnological Changes in Lake Sf. Ana Abstract 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Uniqueness of Lake Sf. Ana 10.3 Formation of Lake Sf. Ana 10.4 Water Quality and Biodiversity 10.5 Lake Level Changes 10.6 Palaeolimnological Reconstruction 10.6.1 Aquatic Life During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 10.6.2 Accelerated, Subsequent Changes Following the LGM 10.6.3 The Holocene 10.6.4 Changing pH Levels of Lake Sf. Ana 10.7 Open Questions Related to the History of Lake Sf. Ana 10.8 Perspectives for the Future 11 Vegetation History and Human Impact in the Ciomadul Area During the Holocene Abstract 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Vegetation History of the Ciomadul Massif 11.2.1 Changes in Forest Cover and the Composition of Primeval Forests 11.2.2 Rapid Expansion of Deciduous Tree Species (9700–8000 BC) 11.2.3 Dominance of Deciduous Trees and Spruce (ca. 8000–3000 BC) 11.2.4 Dominance of Hornbeam and Beech (3000 BC–present) 11.3 Human Impact on Vegetation in Ciomadul 11.4 Summary Glossary of Terms. 12 Hydroclimate Variability and Pollution History of the Mohoș Peatbog Abstract 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Investigating the History of a Peat Bog 12.3 Saharan Dust in the Mohoș Peat Bog 12.4 Heavy-Metal Pollution in the Ciomadul Region 12.4.1 Metal Pollution in Antiquity 12.4.2 The Middle Ages 12.4.3 The Industrial Revolution and Modern Pollution 12.5 Summary 13 Modern Flora and Fauna of the Ciomadul Region Abstract 13.1 Introduction 13.2 The Flora of Ciomadul 13.3 The Fauna of Ciomadul 13.4 Animal Victims of Mofette Gas Emissions 13.5 Summary 14 The Palaeolithic in the Karst Area of Vârghiș (Vargyas) Gorges Abstract 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Karst System in the Eastern Carpathians 14.3 Palaeolithic Cave Evidence 14.3.1 Cave Locations 14.3.2 Lithic Material 14.3.3 Macro- and Microfauna 14.3.3.1 Large Mammals 14.3.3.2 Small Vertebrates 14.3.4 The Geomorphology and Climate of Palaeolithic Ciomadul Area 14.4 Radiometric Age Estimations 15 Prehistory of the Ciomadul Region from the Neolithic to the Late Iron Age Abstract 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The Neolithic (7th–5th Millennium BC) 15.3 The Copper Age (5th–3rd Millennium BC) 15.4 The Bronze Age (3rd–1st Millennium BC) 15.5 The Iron Age (1st Millennium BC) 15.6 Summary 16 Migration Period and Medieval History of the Ciomadul Region Abstract 16.1 Introduction 16.2 From the Visigoths to the Influx of Slavic People 16.3 Castles and Private Estates of the 13th–14th Centuries 16.4 Summary 17 Landscape History, Land Use, and Tourism of the Ciomadul–Balvanyos Region Abstract 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Landscape History of the Ciomadul–Balvanyos Region 17.2.1 1st Ordnance Survey (1763–1787) 17.2.2 2nd Ordnance Survey (1819–1869) 17.2.3 3rd Ordnance Survey (1869–1887) 17.2.4 Twentieth Century Land Use 17.3 Human and Historical Features in the Ciomadul-Balvanyos Region 17.3.1 Băile Tușnad (Tusnádfürdő) 17.3.2 Lăzărești (Lázárfalva) 17.3.3 Cozmeni (Csíkkozmás) 17.3.4 Tușnad (Tusnád) 17.3.5 Bixad (Sepsibükszád) 17.3.6 Băile Balvanyos (Bálványosfürdő) 17.4 Curation of the Ciomadul–Balvanyos Region 17.4.1 Post-communist Conservancy 17.4.2 Natural Features of the Ciomadul–Balvanyos Region 17.4.3 Forestry 17.4.4 Highlights of the Twin Craters 17.5 Modern Tourism in the Ciomadul Region 17.5.1 Development of Ciomadul Tourism 17.5.2 Establishment of the Ecocentre 17.5.3 Hiking Routes at and Around Ciomadul References