Choosing War : Presidential Decisions in the Maine, Lusitania, and Panay Incidents

Throughout US history, presidents have had vastly different reactions to naval incidents. Though some incidents have been resolved diplomatically, others have escalated to outright war. What factors influence the outcome of a naval incident, especially when calls for retribution mingle with recommendations for restraint? Given the rise of long range anti-ship and anti-air missile systems, coupled with tensions in East Asia, the Persian Gulf, and the Black and Baltic Seas, the question is more relevant than ever for US naval diplomacy. In __Choosing War__, Douglas Carl Peifer compares the ways in which different presidential administrations have responded when American lives were lost at sea. He examines in depth three cases: the Maine incident (1898), which led to war in the short term; the Lusitania crisis (1915), which set the trajectory for intervention; and the Panay incident (1937), which was settled diplomatically. While evaluating Presidents William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt's responses to these incidents, Peifer lucidly reflects on the options they had available and the policies they ultimately selected. The case studies illuminate how leadership, memory, and shifting domestic policy shape presidential decisions, providing significant insights into the connections between naval incidents, war, and their historical contexts. Rich in dramatic narrative and historical perspective, __Choosing War__ offers an essential tool for confronting future naval crises. Throughout US history, presidents have had vastly different reactions to naval incidents. Though some incidents have been resolved diplomatically, others have escalated to outright war. What factors influence the outcome of a naval incident, especially when calls for retribution mingle with recommendations for restraint? Given the rise of long range anti-ship and anti-air missile systems, coupled with tensions in East Asia, the Persian Gulf, and the Black Sea, the question is more relevant than ever for US naval diplomacy. In Choosing War, Douglas Carl Peifer compares the ways in which different presidential administrations have responded when American lives were lost at sea. Peifer specifically examines three cases: the Maine incident (1898), which led to war in the short term; the Lusitania crisis (1915), which set the trajectory for intervention; and the Panay incident (1937), which was settled diplomatically. He then analyzes the ways in which Presidents William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt responded to the incidents, considering the options they had available and the policies they ultimately selected. The case studies illustrate the ways in which leadership, memory, and shifting domestic policy shape presidential decisions, and ultimately provides important insights into the connections between naval incidents, war, and their respective historical contexts. Rich in dramatic narrative and historical perspective, Choosing War offers an essential tool for confronting future naval crises. Cover 1 Titlepage 4 Copyright 5 Dedication 6 Contents 8 Acknowledgments 10 Introduction: Naval Incidents and the Decision for War 12 PART ONE: The Maine Incident 24 The Incident 26 Context: The Cuban Insurrection, American Perceptions, and the Cleveland Administration’s Policy 34 The Immediate Reaction: The Public, the Press, Congress, and the Business Community 54 The President Decides, Congress Assents, and a New Era Is Born 64 Aftermath, Consequences and Reflections on the Maine Incident 72 PART TWO: The Lusitania Crisis 76 The Incident 78 Context: American Neutrality, August 1914–​May 1915 102 The Immediate Reaction 130 Wilson’s Response and Bryan’s Departure 138 Aftermath, Consequences, and Reflections on the Lusitania Crisis 146 PART THREE: The Panay Incident 158 Background to the American Presence in China 160 The Incident 166 Context: Isolationism, Foreign Policy, and the Sino-​Japanese War 178 The Immediate Reaction: The Public, the Press, and Congress 204 FDR’s Options and Response 212 Aftermath, Consequences, and Reflections on the Panay Incident 224 PART FOUR: Anticipating the Unexpected 242 Categorizing Naval Incidents 246 Valuing the Particular 254 Notes 260 Bibliography 316 Index 336 This book provides the first comparative analysis of how different presidents have reacted in dissimilar manners to major international naval incidents. By examining the Maine incident, the Lusitania crisis, and the Panay incident, Douglas Carl Peifer provides an essential instrument to deal with the growing threats of a new naval crisis. Introduction: Naval Incidents and the Decision for War Part 1: The Maine Incident Part 2: The Lusitania Crisis Part 3: The Panay Incident Conclusion: Naval Incidents and the Primacy of Context. Typologies, Theories, and the Historical Mindset Bibliography Index "In Choosing War, Douglas Cark Peifer compares the ways in which different presidential administrations have responded when American lives were lost at sea"--Jacket