Childhood Obesity: Risk Factors, Health Effects, and Prevention (Metabolic Diseases - Laboratory and Clinical Research Series)

At the beginning of the third millennium, a rising prevalence of overweight and obese children and adolescents were seen in developed as well as developing and threshold countries. According to the WHO, overweight or obesity affects one in ten children or adolescents worldwide. This tendency is a dramatic one because childhood obesity is not only an aesthetic problem which may result in social stigmatization of affected children, but childhood obesity is a multisystem disease with potentially devastating consequences. As with obesity in adults, childhood obesity is acknowledged to be one of the most important risk factors for hypertension and diabetes during childhood and later in life. This book presents current research in the study of childhood obesity, including physical activity promotion programs to thwart childhood obesity; physiological and psychosocial risk factors in childhood obesity; and the ethnic differences in pediatric obesity and metabolic syndrome Title Page 4 Contents 6 Preface 8 The Importance of Physical Activity in a Lofty Pediatric Obesity Context 14 Abstract 14 Introduction 15 1. Measurement and Surveillance of Physical Activity in the Pediatric Obesity Research 16 1.1. Self-Report 17 1.2. Direct Observation 17 1.3. Double Labeled Water (DLW) 18 1.4. Heart Rate Monitors 18 1.5. Motion Sensors 19 Pedometers 19 Accelerometers 19 2. Current Evidence on the Effect of Physical Activity on Childhood Obesity and its Metabolic-Related Disorders 21 3. How to Promote Physical Activity Among Overweight and Obese Children! 24 3.1. Physical Activity Promotion among Obese Children: Paradigm and Actors’ Role 24 School and Day-Care Center: Role of School Staff and Peers 25 Home: Role of Parents and the Family 26 Neighborhood: Implication of Neighbors and Role of Policy Decision Makers 26 Primary Care Setting: Role of Primary Care Providers 27 Conclusion 28 References 28 Contribution of Physiological and Psychosocial Risk Factors Combined With Sedentary Lifestyles to Overweight and Obesity: Prospects for Prevention 36 Introduction 37 Physical Activity and Obesity 37 Environmental Contributions to Obesity 39 Genetics and Obesity 40 Psychosocial Factors and Obesity 41 Multifactoral Strategies for Change 43 Summary and Final Thoughts 47 Acknowledgment 47 References 48 The Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity and Related Metabolic Abnormalities among Children and Adolescents in China 54 Abstract 54 1. Introduction 55 2. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among Children and Adolescents in China 56 2.1. Distribution of Prevalence of Childhood Overweight and Obesity 56 2.2. Increasing Trends in the Prevalence of Childhood Overweight and Obesity in China 58 3. Obesity Related Metabolic Abnormalities 60 4. Risk Factors Associated with Overweight or Obesity and Related Metabolic Abnormalities among Chinese Children and Adolescents 61 4.1. Prenatal Factors 61 4.2. Birth Weight and Infant Feeding Modalities 62 4.3. Diet and Nutrition 62 4.4. Lifestyles 63 5. Nutrition and Lifestyle Modifications on Childhood Obesity Control 64 6. Conclusions and Implications for Furture Studies 65 References 66 Ethnic Differences in Pediatric Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome 72 Abstract 72 Introduction 72 Ethnic Differences in T2DM and CVD 73 Ethnic Differences in Insulin Resistance 74 Ethnic Differences in MetS and its Components 75 Abdominal Obesity 76 Fasting Glucose 77 Hypertension 77 Low HDL-Cholesterol 78 Triglycerides 79 Summary of Ethnic Differences in MetS Components 79 Ethnic Differences in Etiologies Behind MetS 79 Potential Alternatives for Risk Assessment 81 Need for Predictive Factors 81 Alternate MetS Criteria 82 Family History 82 Serum Markers 83 Conclusion 84 References 84 Migrant Status - An Important Risk Factor for Developing Obesity During Childhood 90 Abstract 90 Introduction 91 Causes and Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity 91 Factor Minority Status and Migration 92 Viennese Study: Obesity among Turkish Migrant Children in Vienna 94 Data Collection and Subjects 94 Somatometric Parameters 94 Weight Status 95 Weight Status Classification among Children and Adolescents 95 Results of the Viennese Study 95 1. Problem of Obesity Classification of Children with a Background of Migration 95 2. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among Children and Adolescents 96 Discussion 97 References 100 Promotion of Healthy Lifestyles to Prevent Obesity in School Children 106 Abstract 106 1. Introduction 106 2. Overweight and Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence: Dimensions and Causes 107 2.1. Why are Overweight and Obesity Increasing in Childhood and in Adolescence? 108 3. Prevention of Obesity at School 109 4. Nutritional and Physical Activity Habits of Primary School Children in Italy and in the Area of Bologna (Northern Italy) 111 4.1. Interventional Study: “Misurare Il Cambiamento. Alimentazione E Attività Motoria Nella Scuola Primaria” (Measuring the Change. Nutritional and Physical Activity in the Primary School) 112 4.1.1. Intervention Activities and Results 112 5. Conclusions 114 References 114 Using Real-Time Data Capture Methods to Investigate Children's Physical Activity and Eating Behaviors 118 Abstract 118 Introduction 119 Advantages of Real-Time Data Capture to Assess Eating and Physical Activity 119 Potential for RTDC Methodology to Inform Research in Key Areas 120 Area 1: To Describe the Prevalence of Eating and Physical Activity Behaviors 120 Area 2: To Describe the Contexts of Eating and Physical Activity Behavior 121 Area 3: To Examine Differences in Eating and Physical Activity Across Contexts 121 Area 4: To Investigate Antecedents and Consequences of Eating and Physical Activity Episodes 122 Area 5: To Examine Daily and Within-Daily Variability in Eating and Physical Activity 122 Practical and Financial Challenges of RTDC 123 Potental of RTDC to Inform Obesity Prevention Programs and Policies 124 Conclusion 125 References 125 Effects of Schoolyard’s Attributes on Childhood Obesity 128 Abstract 128 Introduction 129 Materials and Methods 131 Sample 131 Measures and Procedures 131 Results 131 Descriptive Data 131 Relationship between Obesity and Schoolyard Variables 131 Discussion 133 Conclusion 134 References 134 A GENDER-STRUCTURED RANDOM MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING ADULTHOOD OBESITY 138 Abstract 138 1. Introduction 138 2. Mathematical model 139 3. Parameters estimation 141 4. Trends over next few years 143 4.1. Deterministic prediction 143 4.2. Random prediction 144 5. Conclusions 145 6. Acknowledgments 146 References 146 Does This Study Inform Policy? Examination of Leading Childhood Obesity Journals’ Instructions to Authors Regarding Policy-Related Research and Implications 148 Abstract 148 Introduction 149 Methods 149 Determining the Leading Childhood Obesity Journals 149 1) PubMed 149 2) Web of Science 150 3) Impact Factor 150 4) Best Evidence for Clinical Pediatrics Journal Rankings 150 5) NCI Food Environment Database 150 Examining the Policy Aims and Instructions to Authors 151 Results 152 Discussion 162 Acknowledgments 164 References 164 Nutrition Education in School-Based Childhood and Adolescent Obesity Prevention Programs 166 Abstract 166 Introduction 167 Prevalence 167 Consequences of Child and Adolescent Obesity 167 Determinants of Overweight and Obesity 169 Link between Nutrition and Health 170 Benefits of a Health and Nutrition Education Curriculum 170 Importance of Schools 171 School Curriculum 172 Review of Nutrition Education School-Based Obesity Prevention Programs 173 Components of Successful Programs 173 Challenges of Nutrition Education in School-Based Programs 179 Recommendations for School-Based Nutrition Education Interventions 180 Conclusion 181 References 182 Child Obesity in Global Perspective Emergent Risks Related to Social Status, Urbanism, and Poverty 186 Abstract 186 Introduction 187 The Possible Roles of Urbanism and Socio-economics in Early Childhood Overweight in Developing Countries 188 The Country Samples 191 The Variables and Model 191 Results 194 Conclusion 201 References 202 Chapter Sources 206 Index 208 Content: The importance of physical activity in a lofty pediatric obesity context / Benjamin C. Guinhouya -- Contribution of physiological and psychosocial risk factors combined with sedentary lifestyles to overweight and obesity : prospects for prevention / Pouran D. Faghri, Cynthia H. Adams -- The prevalence of overweight and obesity and related metabolic abnormalities among children and adolescents in China / Zhijie Yu, Gang Hu, Xilin Yang -- Ethnic differences in pediatric obesity and the metabolic syndrome / Zeena Salman, Mark D. DeBoer -- Migrant status -- an important risk factor for developing obesity during childhood / Sylvia Kirchengast -- Promotion of healthy lifestyles to prevent obesity in school children / Elena Centis, Rebecca Marzocchi, Giulio Marchesini -- Using real-time data capture methods to investigate children's physical activity and eating behaviors / Genevieve Fridlund Dunton -- Effects of schoolyard's attributes on childhood obesity / Isabel Mourão-Carvalhal, Eduarda Coelho -- A gender-structured random model for understanding adulthood obesity / Francisco-J. Santonja, Rafael J. Villanueva, Lucas J'odar -- Does this study inform policy? Examination of leading childhood obesity journals' instructions to authors regarding policy-related research and implications / Sheila Fleischhacker ... [et al.] -- Nutrition education in school-based childhood and adolescent obesity prevention programs / Melinda J. Ickes, Manoj Sharma -- Child obesity in global perspective emergent risks related to social status, urbanism, and poverty / Alexandra Brewis, Mary C. Meyer.