Chemistry and Technology of Fabric Preparation and Finishing

I YARN PREPARATION EQUIPMENT......Page 24 Table......Page 25 1 Becks......Page 26 2 Jet Machines......Page 27 CF......Page 28 1 Continuous Rope Range......Page 29 Steamers......Page 31 Open Width Washers......Page 32 SDun Yarns......Page 35 Table......Page 36 Amylopectin......Page 37 1 Retrograding......Page 38 3 British Gum......Page 39 -CFZ-......Page 40 1 Enzyme Desizing......Page 41 Enzvmatic Desizing:......Page 42 4 Test for Starch......Page 43 B Advantages and Disadvantages over Starch......Page 44 Poly(dimethy1 siloxanes)......Page 45 C Solution Properties......Page 46 CF,-CH,-......Page 47 Dehvdration of PVA......Page 48 2 Size Recovery......Page 49 Poly(viny1 fluoride)......Page 50 VI1 POLYESTER RESIN SIZES......Page 51 VI11 OTHER ADDITIVES......Page 52 Poly(ethy1ene)......Page 53 B Triglycerides......Page 54 C Fatty Acids......Page 55 A Vegetable Sources......Page 56 Bayberry Wax......Page 57 C Chemical Wax......Page 58 Poly(viny1 alcohol)......Page 59 PEG Esters......Page 60 Poly(viny1 chloride)......Page 61 Latent Heat of Evaporation......Page 62 1 Cotton......Page 63 2 Wool......Page 64 Poly(ethy1ene terephthalate)......Page 65 V WATER AS A RAW MATERIAL......Page 66 3 Sequestration or Chelation......Page 67 Poly(hexamethy1ene adipamide)......Page 68 Advantapes and Disadvantages:......Page 69 A Formation Constant......Page 70 A Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Solutions......Page 71 C Critical Micelle Concentration......Page 72 Wetting Agents......Page 73 A Ethoxylates......Page 74 3 Cloud Point......Page 75 4 Hydrophilic-Lyophilic Balance (HLB)......Page 76 Structure ofEthoxvlated Nonvlphenol......Page 77 Wetting Times......Page 78 1 Soaps......Page 79 XI1 CATIONICS......Page 80 I MAJOR BLEACHING AGENTS......Page 83 SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE......Page 84 D Effect of Metals......Page 85 I11 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE......Page 86 1 Sodium Silicates......Page 87 E Uses......Page 88 IV SODIUM CHLORITE......Page 89 C Effect of Temperature......Page 90 A Sulfur Dioxide......Page 91 B Fluidity......Page 92 VIII OPTICAL BRIGHTENERS......Page 93 A Stilbene Type OBA......Page 94 I MERCERIZING......Page 95 1 Procedure......Page 96 B Caustic Concentration Units......Page 97 D Mercerizing Fiber Blends......Page 98 F Chainless Mercerizing......Page 99 I11 CARBONIZING OF WOOL......Page 100 A Points of Concern......Page 101 FABRIC FINISHING......Page 103 A Padder......Page 104 1 Location of Padded Liquid......Page 105 B Vacuum Slots......Page 106 C Kiss Rolls......Page 107 D Engraved Roll _\pplicator......Page 108 E Foam Applicators......Page 109 2 Horizontal Pad......Page 110 3 FFT Applicator......Page 111 F Location of One-sided Applied Finishes......Page 112 I11 DRYERS AND OVESS......Page 113 A DryCans......Page 114 C Loop Ovens......Page 115 D Tenter Frames......Page 116 E Other Dryers......Page 119 I WHY FABRICS WRISKLE......Page 120 3 Fabric Factors......Page 122 B History of Crease Recovery......Page 123 C Definitions......Page 124 With Amides......Page 125 B Resin Formers (Aminoplasts)......Page 126 2 Melamine/Formaldehyde......Page 127 C Reactants......Page 128 2 Dimethylol-4,5-Dihydroxyethylene Urea (DMDHEU)......Page 129 3 Carbamates......Page 130 A Atmospheric Formaldehyde......Page 131 2 Formaldehyde Release......Page 132 4 Fabric pH and Formaldehyde Release......Page 133 A Scavengers......Page 6 2 Diethyleneglycolated DMDHEU (ULF)......Page 135 C Important Features of Alkylated DMDHEU......Page 136 B Butanetetracarboxylic Acid (BTCA)......Page 137 Sodium PhosDhate......Page 138 VI1 DURABLE PRESS CATALYST......Page 139 Hydrogen kconcentration......Page 140 B Lewis Acids......Page 141 1 Free Acids......Page 142 2 Alkalinity......Page 143 1 Base Catalyzed Methylolation......Page 144 1 Proton Activated Alkylation......Page 145 2 Cellulose Crosslinking with Lewis Acids......Page 146 C Reaction of Alkoxylated Products......Page 147 1 Hydrolysis of Cellulose Crosslinks......Page 148 1 Important Points......Page 149 B Effectiveness of Different Crosslinkers......Page 150 C Tensile Tear and Abrasion Resistance......Page 151 D Crease Recovery versus Curing Temperature......Page 153 1 Points to Consider......Page 154 3 Chlorine Resistance......Page 155 4 Fabric Odor......Page 156 A Non-durable......Page 157 UreaPormaldehyde......Page 158 I1 FABRIC SOFTENERS......Page 159 C Other Points of Concern......Page 160 D Softener Selection Summary......Page 161 Petrochemical Derived Raw Materials......Page 162 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates......Page 163 Sulfated Fattv Acid Esters......Page 164 Advantages......Page 165 B Cationic Softeners......Page 166 2 Fatty Aminoesters......Page 167 4 Imidazolines......Page 168 Synthesis ofDifatty Quats......Page 169 C Nonionic Softeners......Page 170 Ethoxylation with Ethvlene Oxide......Page 171 Silanes......Page 172 Reactions ofTrichlorosilanes with Water......Page 173 Dimethvl Fluids......Page 174 Amino Functional Silicones......Page 175 Disadvantages......Page 176 REPELLENT FINISHES......Page 177 A Work of Adhesion......Page 178 B Critical Surface Tension......Page 179 A Paraffin Waxes......Page 181 Synthesis and Reactions......Page 182 3 Resin Formers......Page 183 4 Metal Complexes......Page 184 I11 SILICONE WATER REPELLENTS......Page 185 D Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 186 IV FLUOROCHEMICAL REPELLENTS......Page 187 Emulsion Polymer Svnthesis......Page 188 B Effect of Perfluoro Side-Chain......Page 189 D Add-on......Page 190 A Rainwear......Page 191 1 Upholstery Anti-Soil Finishes......Page 192 1 Light-Scattering Fibers......Page 193 B Stain Blockers......Page 194 I SOILS......Page 195 B Oily Soils......Page 196 2 Roll-up Thermodyamics......Page 197 1 Polymethacrylic Acid PMAA......Page 200 2 Methacrylic Acid - Ethyl Acrylate Co-Polymers......Page 201 3 Practical Considerations and Fabric Properties......Page 202 1 Composition of Polyme......Page 203 2 Mechanism......Page 204 1 Polyoxyethylene Co-Polymers......Page 205 2 Sulfoisophthalic Acid Co-Polymers......Page 206 A Non-Ionic Detergents......Page 207 1 AATCC Method......Page 208 Rp Determinations......Page 209 Amlication of RD Measurements......Page 210 3 Geometry of Yarns and Fabrics......Page 211 FLAME RETARDANT FINISHES......Page 212 I THEORY OF COMBUSTION......Page 213 I1 COMBUSTION OF CELLULOSE......Page 214 A Feedback Mechanism......Page 216 B Char Formation......Page 218 2 Phosphorus and Nitrogen......Page 219 3 Halogens......Page 220 1 Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)Phosphonium Derivatives......Page 221 THPC-Urea Precondensate......Page 222 3 Fyrol76......Page 223 A Rayon Additives-......Page 224 B Polyester......Page 225 3 Antiblaze 19T......Page 226 1 Decabromodiphenyl Oxide Antimony Oxide......Page 227 Hexafluoro-Zirconates......Page 228 VI1 FLAMMABILITY TESTS......Page 229 A Mechanism of Pilling......Page 232 Fiber Tenacity......Page 233 D Fabric Finishing......Page 234 c Yarn Spinning Methods......Page 5 4 Singing and Shearing......Page 235 E Summary......Page 236 B Problems Caused by Static Electricity......Page 237 2 Antistatic Agents......Page 238 E Non-Durable Antistatic Agents......Page 239 F Durable Antistatic Finishes......Page 240 1 Composition......Page 241 A Why Fabrics Shrink......Page 242 B Sanforizer......Page 243 1 Compactor Head......Page 245 B Friction Calendar Compactors......Page 246 I1 CALENDARING......Page 249 2 Chasing Calendars......Page 250 5 Embossing Calendar......Page 252 1 Pattern Rolls......Page 253 3 Crowning......Page 254 1 Multi-Cylinder Sueders......Page 255 3 Abrasive Covered Rolls......Page 256 4 Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 257 Double Acting Namers......Page 258 Knit Goods NaDper......Page 259 Sinde Acting Napper......Page 260 NapDer Wire......Page 261 A Shearers......Page 262 V POLISHING......Page 264 VI1 CORDUROY CUTTER......Page 265 VI11 DECATING......Page 266 B Continuous Decating......Page 267 PREPARATION PROCESSES 24 I YARN PREPARATION EQUIPMENT 24 Slasher 25 I1 FABRIC PREPARATION EQUIPMENT 26 A Batch Machines 26 1 Becks 26 2 Jet Machines 27 3 Jig 28 B Continuous Preparation Ranges 28 1 Continuous Rope Range 29 2 Continuous Open Width Range 31 Applicators Pads 31 Steamers 31 Open Width Washers 32 CHEMISTRY OF YARN AND FABRIC PREPARATION 35 I YARN PREPARATION 35 A Warp Size 35 1 Requirement of a Good Size 35 SDun Yarns 35 Continuous Filament Yarns 36 General Reauirements of a Good Size 36 I1 FABRIC PREPARATION 36 A Warp Size and Desizing 36 1 Sources of Sizing Compounds 36 I11 STARCH 37 A Sources of Starches Used as Textile Size 37 B Chemical Constitution 37 Amylose 37 Amylopectin 37 C Starch Solutions 38 1 Retrograding 38 D Modified Starch 39 1 Thin Boiling Starch 39 2 Dextrin 39 3 British Gum 39 4 Oxidized Starch 40 5 Starch Ethers 41 E Desizing Starch 41 1 Enzyme Desizing 41 AlDha and Beta Amvlase 42 Enzvmatic Desizing: 42 2 Desizing with Acids 43 3 Desizing with Oxidizing Agents 43 4 Test for Starch 43 5 Typical Procedures 44 IV CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE (CMC) 44 A Synthesis 44 B Advantages and Disadvantages over Starch 44 V POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVA) 45 A Synthesis of Polyvinyl Alcohol 45 1 Polymerization of Vinyl Acetate 45 2 Hydrolysis to Polyvinyl Alcohol 45 B Commercial Method of Manufacture 45 C Solution Properties 46 D Grades of PVA Available as Textile Size 47 E Film Properties 48 F Desizing PVA 48 1 Effect of Heat-Setting on Removal of PVA 48 Dehvdration of PVA 48 2 Size Recovery 49 VI ACRYLIC SIZES 50 A Polyacrylic Acid 50 1 Synthesis of Polyacrylic Acid 50 2 Desizing Polyacrylic Acid 50 3 Acrylic Acid Co-Polymers 50 4 Effect of Heat- Setting on Removal 51 Anhvdride Formation 51 VI1 POLYESTER RESIN SIZES 51 VI11 OTHER ADDITIVES 52 SCOURING 53 I COMPOSITION OF NATURAL FIBERS 53 I1 CHEMISTRY OF OILS FATS AND WAXES 54 A Fats 54 B Triglycerides 54 1 Hydrolysis of Triglycerides 55 Acid Hydrolysis 55 SaDonification 55 C Fatty Acids 55 Saturated Fatty Acids 56 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 56 I11 SOURCES 56 A Vegetable Sources 56 Castor Oil 57 Coconut Oil 57 CornOil 57 Cottonseed Oil 57 Olive Oil 57 PalmOil 57 Linseed Oil 57 TallOil 57 Bayberry Wax 57 Japan Wax 58 B Animal Sources 58 Tallow 58 Lard 58 Whale Oil 58 C Chemical Wax 58 1 Fatty Alcohols 59 Sources of Fatty Alcohols 59 D Mineral Wax 60 1 Paraffin 60 2 Microcrystalline Wax 60 E Synthetic Wax 60 Fatty Acids 60 Fatty Alconols 60 Polyethylene Glycols 60 PEG Esters 60 I11 SOLVENT SCOURING 61 A Advantages and Disadvantages 62 B Common Solvents 62 1 Solvent Properties 62 Boiling Point 62 Specific Heat 62 Latent Heat of Evaporation 62 2 Non-flammable Solvents 63 IV AQUEOUS SCOURING 63 A Typical Formulation for Scouring Specific Fibers 63 1 Cotton 63 Batch Scouring Procedure 64 Continuous Scouring Procedure 64 2 Wool 64 Wool Raw Stock Scouring 65 3 Silk 65 4 Blends 66 Cotton 66 Rayon 66 Wool 66 Acetate 66 Polyester 66 B Test for Effective Scouring 66 1 AATCC Test Method Number 66 V WATER AS A RAW MATERIAL 66 A Water Softening 67 1 Lime Soda Process 67 2 Cation Exchange 67 3 Sequestration or Chelation 67 VI CLASSES OF SEQUESTERING AGENTS 68 A Polyphosphates 68 1 Formation of Polyphosphates 68 2 Important Polyphosphates 68 Tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) 68 (Tripo1y)sodium phosphate (TSP) 68 Sodiumhexameta phosphate 68 3 Advantages of Inorganic Phosphates 68 B Organophosphonic Acids 68 EDTMP 68 Advantages and Disadvantages: 69 C Aminocarboxylic Acids 69 1 Disodium-Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) 69 Advantages and Disadvantages: 69 2 Nitrilotriacetic Acid (NTA) 69 D Hydroxycarboxylic Acids 69 Advantapes and Disadvantages: 69 VI1 FORMATION OF COMPLEXES 70 A Formation Constant 70 VI1 SLRFACTANTS 71 A Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Solutions 71 B Surface Tension 72 C Critical Micelle Concentration 72 IX CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACTANTS 73 A ByUse 73 Wetting Agents 73 Detergents 74 Emulsifying Agents 74 Dispersing Agents 74 B By Ionic Charge 74 Anionic 74 Cationic 74 Non-Ionic 74 Amphoteric 74 X NONIONIC SURFACTANTS 74 A Ethoxylates 74 1 Typical Hydrophobes: 75 2 Water Solubility of Ethoxylated Nonylphenol 75 3 Cloud Point 75 4 Hydrophilic-Lyophilic Balance (HLB) 76 Structure ofEthoxvlated Nonvlphenol 77 4 Performance 78 Wetting Times 78 Detergency 79 XI ANIONIC SURFACTANTS 79 A Chemical Classification of Anionic Surfactants 79 1 Soaps 79 2 Sulfonates 80 Alkvlaryl Sulfonates 80 Sulfosuccinates 80 Sulfoethylesters 80 Sulfoethylamides 80 3 Sulfates 80 Sulfated alcohols 80 Sulfated ethoxvlated alcohols 80 4 Phosphate Esters 80 Monoesters and diesters 80 XI1 CATIONICS 80 BLEACHING 83 I MAJOR BLEACHING AGENTS 83 SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE 84 A Bleaching Mechanism 85 B Effect of pH 85 C Effect of Time and Temperature 85 D Effect of Metals 85 E Antichlor 86 F Uses 86 G Typical Batch Procedure 86 Formulation 86 Bleach Cvcle: 86 I11 HYDROGEN PEROXIDE 86 A Mechanism 87 B Effect of pH 87 C Effect of Time and Temperature 87 D Stabilizers 87 1 Sodium Silicates 87 2 Organic Stabilizers 88 3 Phosphates 88 E Uses 88 F Typical Bleaching Procedures 89 1 Batch 89 Bath Formulation 89 Bleach Cycle 89 2 Continuous 89 Bath Formulation 89 Bleach Cycle 89 IV SODIUM CHLORITE 89 A Effect of pH 90 B Bleaching Mechanism 90 C Effect of Temperature 90 V OTHER OXIDATIVE BLEACHES 91 A Persulfates 91 B Perborates and Percarbonates 91 C Peracetic Acid 91 V REDUCTIVE BLEACHES 91 A Sulfur Dioxide 91 B Sodium Dithionate (Sodium Hydrosulfite) 92 VI1 TEST FOR DEGREE OF BLEACHING 92 A Whiteness 92 B Fluidity 92 VIII OPTICAL BRIGHTENERS 93 A Stilbene Type OBA 94 OTHER PROCESSES 95 I MERCERIZING 95 A Chain Mercerizing 96 1 Procedure 96 2 Points of Concern and Control 97 B Caustic Concentration Units 97 C Test for Mercerization 98 1 Barium A-umber 98 D Mercerizing Fiber Blends 98 1 Polyester/Cotton 99 2 CottonFlayon 99 E Yarn Mercerizing 99 F Chainless Mercerizing 99 I1 SINGEING 100 A Points of Control 100 I11 CARBONIZING OF WOOL 100 IV HEAT SETTING 101 A Points of Concern 101 FABRIC FINISHING 103 MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL FINISHING 104 I FINISH APPLICATORS 104 A Padder 104 1 Location of Padded Liquid 105 B Vacuum Slots 106 1 Advantages of Vacuum Slots 107 C Kiss Rolls 107 1 Factors Affecting Wet Pick-Up 108 D Engraved Roll _\pplicator 108 E Foam Applicators 109 1 Knife Coaters 110 2 Horizontal Pad 110 3 FFT Applicator 111 F Location of One-sided Applied Finishes 112 I1 DRYING AND CURISG 113 A Migration 113 I11 DRYERS AND OVESS 113 A DryCans 114 B Roller Ovens 115 C Loop Ovens 115 D Tenter Frames 116 E Other Dryers 119 DURABLE PRESS FINISHES 120 I WHY FABRICS WRISKLE 120 A Factors Affecting Wrinkling 122 1 Fiber Factors 122 2 Yarn Factors 122 3 Fabric Factors 122 I1 THEORY OF CREASE RECOVERY 123 A Crosslinking Cellulose 123 B History of Crease Recovery 123 C Definitions 124 I11 CELLULOSE CROSSLINKERS 125 A Reactions of Formaldehyde 125 1 Formation of Hydroxymethyl Derivatives 125 With Alcohols 125 With Amides 125 Activated C-H 126 2 Reactions of Hydroxymethyl 126 With Alcohols 126 With N-Methylol 126 B Resin Formers (Aminoplasts) 126 1 Urea/Formaldehyde (Urn) 127 Svnthesis ofDimethylo1 Urea 127 Important Features 127 2 Melamine/Formaldehyde 127 Svnthesis ofTrimethvlo1 Melamine 128 Svnthesis ofTrimethoxv Melamine 128 C Reactants 128 1 Dimethylolethylene Urea (DMEU) 129 Synthesis &Monomer 129 Methvlolation Reaction 129 Important Features 129 2 Dimethylol-4,5-Dihydroxyethylene Urea (DMDHEU) 129 Synthesis of4 5 _Dihvdroxyethvlene Urea 130 Methvlolation 130 Important Features 130 3 Carbamates 130 Svnthesis 131 Important Features 131 IV CONTROLLING FORMALDEHYDE EXPOSURE 131 A Atmospheric Formaldehyde 131 B Formaldehyde in Fabrics 132 1 Free Formaldehyde 132 2 Formaldehyde Release 132 3 Linkages Responsible for HCHO Release 133 Cellulose Hemiacetal 133 Pendent N-Methylols 133 Cellulose Crosslinks 133 4 Fabric pH and Formaldehyde Release 133 V METHODS OF REDUCING FORMALDEHYDE RELEASE 6 A Scavengers 6 B Modified DMDHEU 135 1 Methylated DMDHEU 135 2 Diethyleneglycolated DMDHEU (ULF) 135 C Important Features of Alkylated DMDHEU 136 VI NON-FORMALDEHYDE DP FINISHES 137 UREA (DMeDHEU) 137 1 Synthesis 137 2 Important Features 137 B Butanetetracarboxylic Acid (BTCA) 137 1 Catalyst 138 Sodium HvDoDhosrshite 138 Sodium PhosDhate 138 C Reactive Silicones 139 D Liquid Ammonia 139 VI1 DURABLE PRESS CATALYST 139 A Bronsted Acids 140 Ionization Constant 140 Hydrogen kconcentration 140 1 Latent Acids 141 Dissociation &Amine Hydrochlorides 141 Dissociation ofAmmonium Chloride 141 Reaction &Ammonia with Formaldehyde 141 B Lewis Acids 141 1 True Lewis Acids 142 2 Metal Hydrates 142 3 Important Considerations 142 C Specific Catalyst and their Use 142 1 Free Acids 142 2 Latent Acids 143 3 Metal Salts 143 4 Hot Catalyst 143 D Buffers and Alkalinity 143 1 Buffers 143 2 Alkalinity 143 VI11 CHEMICAL MECHANISMS 144 A Methylolation 144 1 Base Catalyzed Methylolation 144 2 Acid Catalyzed Methylolation 145 B Alkylation of N-Methylol Compounds 145 1 Proton Activated Alkylation 145 2 Cellulose Crosslinking with Lewis Acids 146 C Reaction of Alkoxylated Products 147 Compounds 148 D Stability of Crosslink to Laundering 148 1 Hydrolysis of Cellulose Crosslinks 148 IX FABRIC PROPERTIES 149 A Durable Press Performance versus Add-on 149 1 Important Points 149 B Effectiveness of Different Crosslinkers 150 C Tensile Tear and Abrasion Resistance 151 1 Points to Consider 153 D Crease Recovery versus Curing Temperature 153 1 Points to Consider 154 E Other Fabric Properties 155 1 Shrinkage 155 2 Yellowing 155 3 Chlorine Resistance 155 Mechanism ofchlorine Damage 156 4 Fabric Odor 156 HANDMODIFICATION 157 I HANDBUILDERS 157 A Non-durable 157 1 Starch 158 2 Polyvinyl Alcohol 158 B Durable 158 1 Thermosetting Polymers 158 Melamine/Formaldehyde 158 UreaPormaldehyde 158 2 Thermoplastic Polymers 159 I1 FABRIC SOFTENERS 159 A Coefficient of Friction 160 B Viscosity 160 C Other Points of Concern 160 D Softener Selection Summary 161 E Raw Materials 162 1 Raw Material Sources 162 %Derived Raw Materials 162 Petrochemical Derived Raw Materials 162 I11 SOFTENER CLASSIFICATIONS 163 A Anionic Softeners 163 1 Sulfates 163 Fatty Alcohol Sulfates 163 Sulfated Fattv Acid Esters 164 2 Sulfonated Fatty Amides and Esters 165 Sulfoethvl Fattv Esters (IGEPON A) 165 Sulfoethyl Fattv Amides (IGEPON TJ 165 3 Properties of Anionic Softeners 165 Advantages 165 Disadvantages 166 B Cationic Softeners 166 1 Amine Functional Cationic Softeners 167 Primarv Fattv Amines 167 Difatty Amines 167 Fatty Diamines 167 Cationic Amine Salts 167 2 Fatty Aminoesters 167 Synthesis 168 3 Fatty Amidoamides 168 Synthesis &Amidoamides 168 Synthesis ofAmidoamide Salt 168 4 Imidazolines 168 Synthesis 169 5 Quaternary Ammonium Salts 169 Svnthesis ofMonofattv Quats 169 Synthesis ofDifatty Quats 169 Synthesis ofImidazoline Quats 170 6 Properties of Cationic Softeners 170 Advantages 170 Disadvantages 170 C Nonionic Softeners 170 1 Polyethylene Emulsions 171 Composition ofpolyethylene Emulsions 171 2 Ethoxylated Nonionic Softeners 171 Ethoxylation with Ethvlene Oxide 171 Esterification with Polvglvcol 172 TyDical Ethoxvlates 172 3 Silicone Chemistry 172 Silanes 172 Reaction oflMonochlorosilanes with Water 173 Reaction ofDichlorosilanes with Water 173 Reactions ofTrichlorosilanes with Water 173 4 Silicone Softeners 174 Dimethvl Fluids 174 Methvlhvdroven Fluids 175 Amino Functional Silicones 175 5 Properties 176 Advantages 176 Disadvantages 176 REPELLENT FINISHES 177 I PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF WETTING 178 A Work of Adhesion 178 B Critical Surface Tension 179 C Contact Angles in Real Systems 181 D Repellent Finishes 181 I1 HYDROCARBON HYDROPHOBES 181 A Paraffin Waxes 181 B Fiber Reactive Hydrocarbon Hydrophobes 182 1 N-Methylol Stearamide 182 Synthesis and Reactions 182 2 Pyridinium Compounds 183 Svnthesis &Reactions 183 3 Resin Formers 183 ReDellents 184 4 Metal Complexes 184 Svnthesis and Reactions 185 I11 SILICONE WATER REPELLENTS 185 A Synthesis of Methyl Hydrogen Fluids 186 B Crosslinking Reactions 186 1 Hydrolysis of Si-H 186 2 Condensation of Silanols 186 C Application to Fabrics 186 D Advantages and Disadvantages 186 IV FLUOROCHEMICAL REPELLENTS 187 A Commercial Products 188 1 Synthesis and Reactions 188 Monomer Svnthesis 188 Emulsion Polymer Svnthesis 188 3 Applied to Fiber 189 B Effect of Perfluoro Side-Chain 189 C Effect of Polymer Backbone 190 D Add-on 190 E Extenders 191 V REPELLENT FINISHING WITH FLUOROCHEMICALS 191 A Rainwear 191 B Stain and Soil Retardancy 192 1 Upholstery Anti-Soil Finishes 192 VI CARPET ANTI-SOIL TREATMENTS 193 A Fluorochemical Finishes 193 B Other Carpet Antisoil Treatments 193 1 Light-Scattering Fibers 193 B Stain Blockers 194 SOIL-RELEASE FINISHES 195 I SOILS 195 A How Fabrics are Soiled 196 I1 SOIL REMOVAL 196 A Particu1at.e Soil 196 B Oily Soils 196 1 Roll-up Mechanism 197 2 Roll-up Thermodyamics 197 I11 SOIL RELEASE CHEMICALS 200 A Acrylic Soil Release Finishes 200 1 Polymethacrylic Acid PMAA 200 2 Methacrylic Acid - Ethyl Acrylate Co-Polymers 201 Mechanism 202 3 Practical Considerations and Fabric Properties 202 D Dual Action Fluorochemical Soil Release 203 1 Composition of Polyme 203 2 Mechanism 204 2 Practical Considerations and Fabric Properties 205 E Hydrophilic Soil-Release Finishes for 100 % Polyester 205 1 Polyoxyethylene Co-Polymers 205 2 Sulfoisophthalic Acid Co-Polymers 206 3 Practical Considerations and Fabric Properties 207 IV OTHER IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS 207 A Non-Ionic Detergents 207 B Soil Release Tests 208 1 AATCC Method 208 2 Release Point 209 Rp Determinations 209 Amlication of RD Measurements 210 3 Geometry of Yarns and Fabrics 211 FLAME RETARDANT FINISHES 212 I THEORY OF COMBUSTION 213 I1 COMBUSTION OF CELLULOSE 214 I11 FLAME RETARDANCY 216 A Feedback Mechanism 216 B Char Formation 218 1 Reactions Leading to Char Formation 219 C How Certain Elements Work 219 1 Boron 219 2 Phosphorus and Nitrogen 219 3 Halogens 220 CELLULOSE 221 A Non-Durable 221 1 Boric AcidBorax 221 2 Diammonium Phosphate and Phosphoric Acid 221 3 Sulfamic Acid and Ammonium Sulfamate 221 B Durable 221 1 Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)Phosphonium Derivatives 221 (THPC) 222 THPC-Urea Precondensate 222 (THPOH) 223 (PYROVATEX CP) 223 3 Fyrol76 223 4 Antiblaze 224 5 Phosphonic and Phosphoric Acid Derivatives 224 V RETARDANT SYSTEMS FOR SPECIFIC FIBERS 224 A Rayon Additives- 224 1 Thiophosphate (SANDOFLOM 225 3 Phosphazines 225 B Polyester 225 1 Decabromodiphenyl Oxide (DBDPO) 226 2 Tris-(2 3.Dibromopropyl Phosphate (TRIS) 226 3 Antiblaze 19T 226 C Nylon 227 1 Thiourea-Urea-Melamine 227 2 Halogenated Systems 227 D Polyester /Cotton Blend 227 1 Decabromodiphenyl Oxide Antimony Oxide 227 E Wool 228 1 Dyebath Exhaustible Finishes 228 Anhydride 228 Titanium Complexes 228 Hexafluoro-Zirconates 228 VI1 FLAMMABILITY TESTS 229 OTHER FINISHES 232 I ANTIPILL FABRIC FINISHING 232 A Mechanism of Pilling 232 1 Pill Formation 233 2 Pill Build-up 233 B Factors Affecting Pill Formation 233 1 Fiber Variables 233 Denier ofsynthetic Fiber 233 Fiber Tenacity 233 2 Yarn Variables 234 Yarn Twist 234 Hairv Yarns 5 c Yarn Spinning Methods 5 3 Fabric Construction 234 C Preparation and Dyeing 234 D Fabric Finishing 234 1 Film Forming Binders 235 2 Durable Press Reactants 235 3 Fabric Softeners 235 4 Singing and Shearing 235 5 Heat-setting 236 E Summary 236 I1 ANTISTATIC FINISHES 237 A Causes of Static 237 B Problems Caused by Static Electricity 237 D Mechanism of Control 238 1 Static Eliminators 238 2 Antistatic Agents 238 3 Fiber Polymer Modification 239 E Non-Durable Antistatic Agents 239 1 Cationic Materials 240 2 Non-Ionic Materials 240 F Durable Antistatic Finishes 240 1 Composition 241 MECHANICAL FINISHING 242 I COMPACTING SHRINKPROOFING 242 A Why Fabrics Shrink 242 B Sanforizer 243 1 Compactor Head 245 B Friction Calendar Compactors 246 C Overfeed Pin Tentering 249 I1 CALENDARING 249 A Types of Calendars 250 1 Swizzing Calendars 250 2 Chasing Calendars 250 3 Friction Calendars 252 4 Compaction Calendar 252 5 Embossing Calendar 252 6 Schreiner Calendar 253 B Construction of the Rolls 253 1 Pattern Rolls 253 2 Bowls 254 3 Crowning 254 4 Auxiliary Equipment 255 I11 RAJSING 255 A Sueding 255 1 Multi-Cylinder Sueders 255 2 Single Cylinder Sueder 256 3 Abrasive Covered Rolls 256 4 Advantages and Disadvantages 257 B Napping 258 1 Nappers 258 Double Acting Namers 258 Knit Goods NaDper 259 Sinde Acting Napper 260 NapDer Wire 261 IV SHEARING 262 A Shearers 262 V POLISHING 264 VI1 CORDUROY CUTTER 265 VI11 DECATING 266 A Semi-Decating 267 B Continuous Decating 267 Table 25 Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) 40 Poly(dimethy1 siloxanes) 45 Poly(viny1 fluoride) 50 Poly(ethy1ene) 53 Poly(viny1 alcohol) 59 Poly(viny1 chloride) 61 Poly(ethy1ene terephthalate) 65 Poly(hexamethy1ene adipamide) 68 specific groups at the surface and some of their data is tabulated in the Table 36 Table 36 CF 28 -CFZ- 40 CF,-CH,- 47 Sizing/Scouring/Bleaching/Mercerizing/Singeing/Durable,press,finishing/Hand,or,softener,finishing/Repellant,finishing/Soil-release,finishing/Flame,retardant,finishing/Anti-pill,finishing/Antistatic,finishing/Mechanical,finishing College of Textiles; NCSU