Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Plus Mastering Chemistry with Pearson eText -- Access Card Package (5th Edition) (New Chemistry Titles from Niva Tro)

__For courses in chemistry.__ **Actively engage students to become expert problem solvers and critical thinkers** Nivaldo Tro’s **__Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__** presents chemistry visually through multi-level images—macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic representations—to help students see the connections between the world they see around them, the atoms and molecules that compose the world, and the formulas they write down on paper. Interactive, digital versions of select worked examples instruct students how to break down problems using Tro’s unique “Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check” technique and then complete a step in the example. To build conceptual understanding, Dr. Tro employs an active learning approach through interactive media that requires students to pause during videos to ensure they understand before continuing. The **5th Edition** pairs digital, pedagogical innovation with insights from learning design and educational research to create an **active, integrated,** and **easy-to-use** framework. The new edition introduces a fully integrated book and media package that streamlines course set up, actively engages students in becoming expert problem solvers, and makes it possible for professors to teach the general chemistry course easily and effectively. **Also available with Mastering Chemistry** By combining trusted author content with digital tools and a flexible platform, Mastering personalizes the learning experience and improves results for each student.The fully integrated and complete media package allows instructors to engage students before they come to class, hold them accountable for learning during class, and then confirm that learning after class. **Note:** You are purchasing a standalone product; Mastering Chemistry does not come packaged with this content. Students, if interested in purchasing this title with Mastering Chemistry, ask your instructor for the correct package ISBN and Course ID. Instructors, contact your Pearson representative for more information. If you would like to purchase both the physical text and Mastering Chemistry, search for: **0134988809 / 9780134988801 __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__ Plus Mastering Chemistry with Pearson eText -- Access Card Package** Package consists of: * 0134874374 / 9780134874371 __Chemistry: A Molecular Approach__ * 013498854X / 9780134988542 Mastering Chemistry with Pearson eText -- ValuePack Access Card -- for Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Cover Title Page Copyright Page About the Author Brief Contents Interactive eText Media Contents Contents Preface 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving 1.1 Atoms and Molecules 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Thomas S. Kuhn and Scientific Revolutions 1.3 The Classification of Matter The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas Classifying Matter by Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures Separating Mixtures 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change 1.6 The Units of Measurement Standard Units The Meter: A Measure of Length The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass The Second: A Measure of Time The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature Prefix Multipliers Derived Units: Volume and Density Volume Density Calculating Density CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Bone Density 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement Counting Significant Figures Exact Numbers Significant Figures in Calculations Precision and Accuracy CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Integrity in Data Gathering 1.8 Solving Chemical Problems Converting from One Unit to Another General Problem-Solving Strategy Units Raised to a Power Order-of-Magnitude Estimations Problems Involving an Equation 1.9 Analyzing and Interpreting Data Identifying Patterns in Data Interpreting Graphs CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 2 Atoms and Elements 2.1 Brownian Motion: Atoms Confirmed 2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter 2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It The Law of Conservation of Mass The Law of Definite Proportions The Law of Multiple Proportions John Dalton and the Atomic Theory CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atoms and Humans 2.4 The Discovery of the Electron Cathode Rays Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron 2.5 The Structure of the Atom 2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Where Did Elements Come From? 2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table Modern Periodic Table Organization Ions and the Periodic Table CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Elements of Life 2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Evolving Atomic Masses 2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen” Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles) CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 3 Molecules and Compounds 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water 3.2 Chemical Bonds Ionic Bonds Covalent Bonds 3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models Types of Chemical Formulas Molecular Models 3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds 3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Naming Ionic Compounds Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions Hydrated Ionic Compounds 3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names Naming Molecular Compounds Naming Acids Naming Binary Acids Naming Oxyacids CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Acid Rain 3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature 3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds Molar Mass of a Compound Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing 3.9 Composition of Compounds Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Methylmercury in Fish 3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data Determining Molecular Formulas for Compounds Combustion Analysis 3.11 Organic Compounds Hydrocarbons Functionalized Hydrocarbons CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 4 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Quantities 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels 4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide? Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 4.4 Stoichiometric Relationships: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Percent Yield, and Reactant in Excess Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses 4.5 Three Examples of Chemical Reactions: Combustion, Alkali Metals, and Halogens Combustion Reactions Alkali Metal Reactions Halogen Reactions CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 5 Introduction to Solutions and Aqueous Reactions 5.1 Molecular Gastronomy and the Spherified Cherry 5.2 Solution Concentration Solution Concentration Using Molarity in Calculations Solution Dilution 5.3 Solution Stoichiometry 5.4 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions The Solubility of Ionic Compounds 5.5 Precipitation Reactions 5.6 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations 5.7 Acid–Base Reactions Acid–Base Reactions Acid–Base Titrations 5.8 Gas-Evolution Reactions 5.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions Oxidation States Identifying Redox Reactions The Activity Series: Predicting Whether a Redox Reaction Is Spontaneous CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bleached Blonde CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 6 Gases 6.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of Decompression 6.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions Pressure Units The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Blood Pressure 6.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Extra-Long Snorkels Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles) 6.4 The Ideal Gas Law 6.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure Density of a Gas Molar Mass of a Gas 6.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures Collecting Gases over Water 6.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited Molar Volume and Stoichiometry ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA: Good News about Our Nation’s Air Quality 6.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases How Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains Pressure and the Simple Gas Laws Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law Temperature and Molecular Velocities 6.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases 6.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles The Effect of Intermolecular Forces Van der Waals Equation Real Gases CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 7 Thermochemistry 7.1 Chemical Hand Warmers 7.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions Types of Energy Energy Conservation and Energy Transfer Units of Energy 7.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch Internal Energy CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Redheffer’s Perpetual Motion Machine Heat and Work 7.4 Quantifying Heat and Work Heat Temperature Changes and Heat Capacity Thermal Energy Transfer Work: Pressure–Volume Work 7.5 Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry 7.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations 7.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH[sub(rxn)] 7.8 Relationships Involving ΔH[sub(rxn)] 7.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 7.10 Energy Use and the Environment Energy Consumption Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil Fuel Use Air Pollution Global Climate Change CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Renewable Energy CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 8 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 8.1 Schrödinger’s Cat 8.2 The Nature of Light The Wave Nature of Light The Electromagnetic Spectrum CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Radiation: Treatment for Cancer Interference and Diffraction The Particle Nature of Light 8.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atomic Spectroscopy, a Bar Code for Atoms 8.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy The de Broglie Wavelength The Uncertainty Principle Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps 8.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom Atomic Spectroscopy Explained 8.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals s Orbitals (l = 0) p Orbitals (I = 1) d Orbitals (I = 2) f Orbitals (I = 3) The Phase of Orbitals The Shape of Atoms CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 9 Periodic Properties of the Elements 9.1 Nerve Signal Transmission 9.2 The Development of the Periodic Table 9.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms Coulomb’s Law Shielding Penetration Electron Spatial Distributions and Sublevel Splitting Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms 9.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table The Transition and Inner Transition Elements 9.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model 9.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge Effective Nuclear Charge Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements 9.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions Ionic Radii Ionization Energy Trends in First Ionization Energy Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies 9.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character Electron Affinity Metallic Character 9.9 Periodic Trends Summary CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 10 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model 10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 10.2 Types of Chemical Bonds 10.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 10.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story The Born–Haber Cycle Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ionic Compounds in Medicine 10.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures Single Covalent Bonds Double and Triple Covalent Bonds Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality 10.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character 10.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 10.8 Resonance and Formal Charge Resonance Formal Charge 10.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets Odd-Electron Species Incomplete Octets CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner Expanded Octets 10.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths Bond Energy Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions Bond Lengths 10.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Lewis Structure of Ozone CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 11 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory 11.1 Morphine: A Molecular Imposter 11.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry 11.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs 11.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules 11.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity Vector Addition CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: How Soap Works 11.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond 11.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals sp[sup(3)] Hybridization sp[sup(3)] Hybridization and Double Bonds CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Chemistry of Vision sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds sp[sup(3)] d and sp[sup(3)]d[sup(2)] Hybridization Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes 11.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAOs) Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules Polyatomic Molecules CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces 12.1 Water, No Gravity 12.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison Differences between States of Matter Changes between States 12.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together Dispersion Force Dipole–Dipole Force Hydrogen Bonding Ion–Dipole Force CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA 12.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action Surface Tension Viscosity CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Viscosity and Motor Oil Capillary Action 12.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure The Process of Vaporization The Energetics of Vaporization Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter 12.6 Sublimation and Fusion Sublimation Fusion Energetics of Melting and Freezing 12.7 Heating Curve for Water 12.8 Phase Diagrams The Major Features of a Phase Diagram Navigation within a Phase Diagram The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances 12.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Water Pollution CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 13 Solids and Modern Materials 13.1 Friday Night Experiments: The Discovery of Graphene 13.2 X-Ray Crystallography 13.3 Unit Cells and Basic Structures Cubic Unit Cells Closest-Packed Structures 13.4 The Fundamental Types of Crystalline Solids Molecular Solids CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Chocolate, An Edible Material Ionic Solids Atomic Solids 13.5 The Structures of Ionic Solids 13.6 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates Carbon Silicates 13.7 Ceramics, Cement, and Glass Ceramics Cement Glass 13.8 Semiconductors and Band Theory Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors 13.9 Polymers and Plastics CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Kevlar CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 14 Solutions 14.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater 14.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy The Effect of Intermolecular Forces 14.3 Energetics of Solution Formation Energy Changes in Solution Formation Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration 14.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water 14.5 Expressing Solution Concentration CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Lake Nyos Molarity Molality Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume Using Parts by Mass (or Parts by Volume) in Calculations Mole Fraction and Mole Percent CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Dirty Dozen 14.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure Vapor Pressure Lowering Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Antifreeze in Frogs Osmotic Pressure 14.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions 14.8 Colloids CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 15 Chemical Kinetics 15.1 Catching Lizards 15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction Definition of Reaction Rate Measuring Reaction Rates 15.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate The Three Common Reaction Orders (n = 0, 1, and 2) Determining the Order of a Reaction Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants 15.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time The Integrated Rate Law The Half-Life of a Reaction 15.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate The Arrhenius Equation The Activation Energy, Frequency Factor, and Exponential Factor Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor 15.6 Reaction Mechanisms Rate Laws for Elementary Steps Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 15.7 Catalysis Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis Enzymes: Biological Catalysts CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role of Chymotrypsin in Digestion CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 16 Chemical Equilibrium 16.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium 16.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium 16.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K) Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Life and Equilibrium Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation 16.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure Relationship Between Kp and Kc Units of K 16.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids 16.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations 16.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change 16.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems 16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 17 Acids and Bases 17.1 Heartburn 17.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases 17.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases The Arrhenius Definition The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 17.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (K[sub(a)]) Strong Acids Weak Acids The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka[sub(a)]) 17.5 Autoionization of Water and pH The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity pOH and Other p Scales CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Ulcers 17.6 Finding the [H[sub(3)])O[sup(+)])] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions Strong Acids Weak Acids Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid Mixtures of Acids 17.7 Base Solutions Strong Bases Weak Bases Finding the [OH-] and pH of Basic Solutions CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: What’s in My Antacid? 17.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts Anions as Weak Bases Cations as Weak Acids Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 17.9 Polyprotic Acids Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution 17.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure Binary Acids Oxyacids 17.11 Lewis Acids and Bases Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids Cations That Act as Lewis Acids 17.12 Acid Rain Effects of Acid Rain Acid Rain Legislation CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 18 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium 18.1 The Danger of Antifreeze 18.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution The Stoichiometry Calculation The Equilibrium Calculation Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid 18.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity Relative Amounts of Acid and Base Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base Buffer Range CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Buffer Effectiveness in Human Blood Buffer Capacity 18.4 Titrations and pH Curves The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors 18.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant Ksp and Molar Solubility CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY Hard Water Ksp and Relative Solubility The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility The Effect of pH on Solubility 18.6 Precipitation Selective Precipitation 18.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides Group 2: Acid- Insoluble Sulfides Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides and Hydroxides Group 4: Insoluble Phosphates Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH4+ 18.8 Complex Ion Equilibria The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 19 Free Energy and Thermodynamics 19.1 Cold Coffee and Dead Universes 19.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 19.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy The Entropy Change upon the Expansion of an Ideal Gas 19.4 Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes Entropy and State Change: The Concept Entropy and State Changes: The Calculation 19.5 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings The Temperature Dependence of ΔS[sub(surr)] Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 19.6 Gibbs Free Energy The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity 19.7 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔS°rxn Defining Standard States and Standard Entropy Changes Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (ΔS°rxn ) for a Reaction 19.8 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔG°rxn Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with ΔG° rxn = Δ H°rxn – TΔS°rxn Calculating ΔG° rxn with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous Calculating ΔG°[sub(rxn)] for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps Why Free Energy Is “Free” 19.9 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between Δ G°rxn and Δ Grxn Standard versus Nonstandard States The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions Standard Conditions Equilibrium Conditions Other Nonstandard Conditions 19.10 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ? G°rxn to the Equilibrium Constant (K) The Relationship between Δ G°rxn and K The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 20 Electrochemistry 20.1 Lightning and Batteries 20.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 20.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions The Voltaic Cell Current and Potential Difference Anode, Cathode, and Salt Bridge Electrochemical Cell Notation 20.4 Standard Electrode Potentials Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid 20.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant The Relationship between ΔG° and E°cell The Relationship between E°cell and K 20.6 Cell Potential and Concentration Cell Potential under Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation Concentration Cells CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Concentration Cells in Human Nerve Cells 20.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity Dry-Cell Batteries Lead–Acid Storage Batteries Other Rechargeable Batteries Fuel Cells CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer 20.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity Predicting the Products of Electrolysis Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 20.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions Corrosion of Iron Preventing the Corrosion of Iron CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz Terms Concepts Equations and Relationships Learning Outcomes EXERCISES: Review Questions Problems by Topic Cumulative Problems Challenge Problems Conceptual Problems Questions for Group Work Data Interpretation and Analysis Answers to Conceptual Connections 21 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 21.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 21.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 21.3 Types of Radioactivity Alpha (α) Decay Beta (β) Decay Gamma (γ) Ray Emission Positron Emission Electron Capture 21.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity Magic Numbers Radioactive Decay Series 21.5 Detecting Radioactivity 21.6 The Kineti