Changing Dietary Patterns, Indigenous Foods, and Wild Foods : In Relation to Wealth, Mutual Relations, and Health in Tanzania

This book presents different dietary patterns, some utilizing wild foods and others facing drastically changing dietary patterns, and shows their implications for health in terms of wealth, mutual assistance, food sufficiency and food diversity. The book examines these globally important issues through a case study of Tanzania. Using a novel methodology based on a global standard quality of life indicator, the book sheds light on the relationship between wild food intake and health in Tanzania. Descriptive case studies illustrate the impact of various food patterns and wild food intake on human health. It also highlights the divergence between food production sufficiency and food diversity. It then discusses the influence of wealth, mutual relations, and methods of food access. Finally, the book concludes with recommendations for maintaining good health in various environments. The intended readers of this book are academics and professionals in the fields of development, nutrition, and environment in East Africa. These include, but are not limited to, regional and district personnel who are actively engaged in development, relevant ministries of food and agriculture, and international organizations such as FAO, UNICEF, UNDP, and UNEP. In the academic field, students and researchers in international studies, development studies, African studies, social studies, cultural studies, nutrition, agriculture, and environmental studies are targeted. Acknowledgment Contents Editors and Contributors Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction: Changing Dietary Patterns, Indigenous Foods, and Wild Foods in Relation to Wealth, Mutual Relations, ... 1.1 Background and Perspectives of the Book 1.1.1 Changes in Dietary Patterns and the Double Burden of Malnutrition (DBM) 1.1.2 Wealth, Indigenous Foods, and Wild Foods 1.1.3 Social Capital, Mutual Relations, and Health 1.1.4 Quality of Life (QOL) and SF-12 1.2 Research Country and Areas 1.2.1 Tanzania 1.2.2 Research Areas 1.3 Summary of Each Part and Chapter 1.3.1 Part I: Dietary Patterns in Tanzania: Obtaining Foods and Combining Them in the Varied Environment 1.3.2 Part II: Dietary Patterns, Health, Wealth, and Mutual Relations 1.3.3 Part III: Case Studies: Changing Dietary Patterns and Implications for Health 1.3.4 Part IV: Wild Food Intake and Association With Health References Part I: Dietary Patterns in Tanzania: Obtaining Foods and Combining them in the Varied Environments Chapter 2: Environment, Dietary Patterns, and Combinations of Food Intake in Tanzania 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Diverse Environment and Agricultural Production in Tanzania 2.3 What Are the Dietary Patterns in Tanzania? 2.4 Obtaining Information at the Household Level From Food Diaries in Three Areas of Tanzania 2.5 Meals at the Household Level in Dodoma Region in Semiarid Central Tanzania 2.6 Meals at the Household Level in Lindi Region in the Southeastern Bushland 2.7 Meals at the Household Level in Urban Dar es Salaam 2.8 Combination of Food Groups and Vegetable Intake 2.9 Summary and Discussion References Chapter 3: Purchase, Cultivation, and Forage: Does It Make a Difference in Food Intake Frequency? 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Comparisons of Regional and Seasonal Food Group Intake 3.3 Differences Between Family Members Within the Households 3.3.1 Differences Within Families in Lindi Region 3.3.2 Differences Within Families in Dodoma Region 3.3.3 Differences Within Families in Dar es Salaam City 3.4 How Are Foods Obtained? 3.5 Relationship Between Food Group Intake and the Source of Food 3.6 Food Balance and Food Origin in Each Region 3.6.1 Households in Southeast, Lindi 3.6.2 Households in Central, Dodoma 3.6.3 Households in Dar es Salaam 3.7 Conclusions References Part II: Analysis of Dietary Patterns, Health, Wealth, and Mutual Relations Chapter 4: Does Staple Food Sufficiency Ensure Food Variety? A Comparative Analysis from Southern, Southeastern, and Central T... 4.1 Overview of Geographical and Seasonal Differences in Food Intake in Tanzania 4.2 Research Method and Area 4.2.1 Method of Systematic Analysis 4.2.2 Research Area and Target Population 4.3 How Different Are Food Intake Frequencies Between the Villages? 4.4 How Different Are Food Intake Frequencies Between Seasons? 4.5 Discussion and Conclusion References Chapter 5: Changing Dietary Patterns and Associated Social Context: Subjective Health Quality of Life, Wealth, and Mutual Rela... 5.1 Introduction: Dietary Patterns, Wealth, and Quality of Life 5.2 Methods 5.2.1 Research Area and Data Collection 5.2.2 Content of the Questionnaire 5.2.3 Determination of Dietary Patterns 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Characteristics of the Study Participants 5.3.2 QOL in Each Village 5.3.3 Characteristics of Dietary Patterns and Locations 5.3.4 Correlations and Associations Between Dietary Patterns and Wealth and Mutual Relations 5.3.5 Correlations and Associations Between Dietary Patterns and QOL 5.4 Discussion and Conclusions References Chapter 6: Social Capital and Subjective ``Poverty ́ ́ Contribute to People ́s Subjective Health, But Financial Support Does Not 6.1 Social Capital and Social Support as Social Determinants of Health 6.2 Characteristics of Study Participants and Research Method 6.2.1 Research Sites and Participants 6.2.2 Research Method 6.3 Social Factors Affecting Subjective Health 6.3.1 Regional Comparison of Subjective Health 6.3.2 Regional Comparison of Food Intake Frequency Score 6.3.3 Living Environment in the Four Villages 6.3.4 Factors Affecting Subjective Health in the Four Villages 6.4 Discussion and Conclusions 6.5 Study Limitations References Part III: Case Studies: Changing Dietary Patterns and Implications on Health Chapter 7: Growth with Disparity in a Rich Diverse City: Case of the Economic Capital Dar es Salaam 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Economic Growth and Its Contribution to Country GDP 7.3 Malnutrition and Health Status of Dar es Salaam Citizens 7.3.1 Overnutrition of Dar es Salaam Citizens 7.3.2 Undernutrition of Dar es Salaam Citizens 7.3.3 Strategies Implemented by the Government to Fight Malnutrition 7.4 Food Culture, Consumer Preference, and Patterns in Dar es Salaam Region 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8: High Maize Productive Rural Inland Areas: Ample Staple Food, But What About Health? 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Introduction to the Southern Highland, Iringa Region, and Ifunda Village 8.2 Methodology 8.3 Health of Adults 8.3.1 About the Respondents 8.3.2 Quantity and Balance of Food Intake 8.4 Wild Foods and Their Benefits 8.5 Livelihood, Marriage, and Family 8.5.1 Livelihood 8.5.2 Marriage and Family 8.6 Social Capital and Decision-Making 8.7 Food Intake Frequency and Subjective Health 8.8 Understanding the Challenges and Potential in the Area References Chapter 9: Coastal Traditional and Changing Dietary Patterns: Protein From Fish and Pulses as Well as Patterns of Purchased Fo... 9.1 Introduction to the Coastal Southeast 9.1.1 Coastal Lindi Region 9.1.2 Kijiweni Village 9.2 Food Intake and Health Situation From a Pilot Study in Raha Leo Elementary School, Lindi City 9.3 Adults ́ and Children ́s Health 9.3.1 Health of Adults Based on Quality of Life Evaluation Based on SF-12 9.3.2 Children ́s Survival and Underweight 9.4 Quantity and Balance of Food Intake 9.5 Wild Food Intake 9.6 Livelihood, Marriage, and Family 9.7 Social Capital and Decision-Making 9.8 Understanding the Challenges and Potentials of the Coastal Lindi Region 9.8.1 Malnutrition of Children 9.8.2 Food Intake, Health, and Wild Foods of Adults 9.8.3 Mutual Assistance References Part IV: Wild Food Intake and Association with Health Chapter 10: Does Intake of Wild Foods Improve Subjective Health? Evidence from Three Areas of Tanzania 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Background and Previous Research on the Relationship Between Wild Foods and Health 10.1.2 Research Areas 10.1.3 Method 10.2 Interview Respondents, Their Situations, and Wild Food Intake 10.2.1 Interview Respondents 10.2.2 Access to Food and Subjective Wealth Rating 10.2.3 Subjective Health Assessment of Surveyed Participants 10.2.4 Wild Food Intake 10.3 Analysis: Relationship Between Wild Food Intake and Subjective Health 10.3.1 Correlations Between Wild Food Intake and Subjective Health 10.3.2 In Relation to Age, Sex, Food Insufficiencies/Staple Food Intake, and ``Poverty ́ ́ 10.4 Multiple Regression Analysis 10.4.1 Chinangali I Village, Dodoma Region 10.4.2 Malolo Village, Lindi Region 10.4.3 Kijiweni Village, Lindi Region 10.4.4 Total of Three Villages 10.5 Cross-Analysis 10.6 Discussion 10.6.1 The Case of Chinangali I Village, Dodoma Region 10.6.2 The Case of Malolo Village, Lindi Region 10.6.3 The Case of Kijiweni Village, Lindi Region 10.6.4 Total and Overall Perspective of the Three Villages 10.7 Limitations and Conclusion 10.7.1 Limitations of This Study 10.7.2 Conclusions and Future Issues References Chapter 11: Case of Inland Forest Vicinities in Tanzania: General Low Health Evaluation But Higher for Those Who Access Variet... 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Methodology 11.1.2 Research Area 11.2 About the Respondents 11.2.1 Age, Sex, Ethnic Group, and Religion of the Respondents 11.2.2 Livelihoods 11.2.3 Marriage and Family 11.3 Social Capital and Decision-Making 11.3.1 Participation in Groups 11.3.2 Mutual Assistance 11.3.3 Decision-Making and Social Capital 11.4 The Health of Adults and Children 11.4.1 Health of Adults 11.4.1.1 GH: General Health 11.4.1.2 PF: Physical Functioning 11.4.1.3 RP: Role Physical 11.4.1.4 RE: Role Emotional 11.4.1.5 BP: Body Pain 11.4.1.6 MH: Mental Health 11.4.1.7 VT: Vitality 11.4.1.8 SF: Social Functioning 11.4.1.9 SF-12 11.4.2 Children ́s Nutrition, Survival, and Food Intake 11.4.2.1 Survival 11.4.2.2 Nutrition 11.4.2.3 Children ́s Food and Care 11.5 Food Sufficiency, Contents, and Balance of Food Intake 11.5.1 Food Sufficiency and Deficit 11.5.2 Food Contents and Balance 11.6 Wild Foods and Their Benefits 11.7 Understanding the Challenges and Potentials of the Village References Chapter 12: Traditional Semiarid Agro-Pastoral Inland Food Patterns and Society: Frequent Food Deficits But Balanced BMI and P... 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Benefits of Leafy Green Side Dishes and Wild Foods 12.1.1.1 The Role of Leafy Vegetables 12.1.1.2 Health Benefits of Edible Weeds 12.1.2 Semiarid Central, Dodoma Region and Chinangali I Village 12.1.3 Methodology 12.1.4 Respondents 12.2 Health of Adults and Children 12.2.1 Subjective Health Evaluation of Adults (SF-12) 12.2.2 Health of Children 12.2.2.1 Under-5 Mortality 12.2.2.2 Underweight Children Under-5 12.3 Food Sufficiency, Content, and Balance of Food Intake 12.3.1 Food Sufficiency 12.3.2 Foods Eaten 12.3.3 Balance of Food Intake 12.4 Livelihood, Marriage, and Family 12.4.1 Livelihood 12.4.2 Coping With Food Shortages 12.4.3 Marriage and Family 12.5 Participation in Groups and Mutual Assistance 12.5.1 Participation in Groups 12.5.2 Mutual Assistance 12.5.3 Age and Gender Differences in Mutual Assistance 12.6 Frequency of Food Group Intake and Social Status/Relations 12.6.1 Analysis by Food Group 12.6.1.1 Staple Foods and Vegetables 12.6.1.2 Meat, Fish, and Milk 12.6.1.3 Pulses 12.6.1.4 Nuts 12.6.1.5 Wild Foods 12.6.1.6 Oil, Salt, and Sugar 12.6.2 Analysis by Social Status and Relations 12.6.2.1 Subjective Wealth Evaluation 12.6.2.2 Having Livestock 12.6.2.3 Participation Groups 12.6.2.4 Mutual Relations 12.7 Conclusion 12.7.1 Summary 12.7.2 Wealth, Mutual Relations, and the ``Traditional Inland ́ ́ Food Pattern References Chapter 13: Nutrition Potential of African Wild Leafy Vegetables: Evidence from Semiarid Central Tanzania 13.1 Introduction 13.2 African Wild Leafy Vegetables Use and Knowledge in Africa 13.3 Current Status of Consuming Wild Leafy Vegetables in Africa 13.4 Materials and Methods 13.4.1 Sample Description and Selection 13.4.2 Sample Collection and Processing 13.4.3 Sample Analyses 13.4.3.1 Moisture Content Determination 13.4.3.2 Ash Content Determination 13.4.3.3 Crude Fat Determination 13.4.3.4 Crude Fiber Determination 13.4.3.5 Crude Protein Level Determination 13.4.3.6 Mineral Determination 13.4.3.7 Determination of β-Carotene Sample Preparation for β-Carotene Standard solution preparation for β-carotene HPLC quantification for β-carotene 13.4.3.8 Determination of Vitamin C Sample Preparation for Vitamin C Standard Preparation for Vitamin C HPLC Determination for Vitamin C 13.5 Statistical Analysis 13.6 Results and Discussion 13.6.1 Proximate Composition of Leafy Vegetables 13.6.2 Minerals, β-Carotene, and Vitamin C Levels of Leafy Vegetables 13.7 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Conclusions 14.1 Summary of the Chapters 14.1.1 Part I Dietary Patterns in Tanzania: Obtaining Foods and Combining Them in the Varied Environment 14.1.2 Part II Food Patterns, Health, Wealth and Mutual Relations 14.1.3 Part III Case Studies: Changing Food Patterns and Implications for Health 14.1.4 Part IV Wild Food Intake and Its Association with Health 14.2 Discussion 14.2.1 Protein Intake Associated With Health and Wealth 14.2.2 Changing Dietary Patterns: Intake of Vegetables Associated With Good Health But Decreased by Purchasing Foods 14.2.3 Mutual Assistance in Food Associated With Good Health But Not Money 14.2.4 African Leafy Vegetables as the Reason for the ``Poor ́ ́ to Be in Good Health in a Semiarid Agro-Pastoral Village 14.3 Implications and Recommendations From the Findings 14.4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Index