Challenging Mobilities in and to the EU during Times of Crises: The Case of Greece (IMISCOE Research Series)

This open access book offers a cross-disciplinary view of challenging mobility issues for migrants and refugees in Europe and particularly Greece during the last decade when the economic and refugee crises coincided. It offers new analyses and data on a diverse range of topics concerning new emigrants as well as refugees and mobilities in Greece. The book covers themes which are not only related to refugee and immigrant integration and governance challenges, but also describes host attitudes, solidarity, political and protest claims in the public sphere, as well as the changing emigration environment in Greece within a European context. With contributions from the fields of philosophy, anthropology, sociology, economics, political science, geography and linguistics, this book provides a unique resource for students and scholars, but also for policy-makers and social scientists working on migration-related issues within and beyond Europe. Endorsements Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Contents About the Editors Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction: Challenging Mobilities, Greece and the EU in Times of Crises 1.1 Crises and Challenging Mobilities: A Multidisciplinary Approach from the EU’s South-Eastern Periphery 1.2 Crises and Migration Related Works on Greece: Situating the Contributions of the Volume 1.3 A Multidisciplinary Approach on a Single Country Case: Levels of Analysis and Migration During Crises 1.4 New Knowledge on Crises and Mobilities from the EU Periphery 1.4.1 Third Wave Emigration and Transnationalism from Below and Above 1.4.2 A Cycle of Pro-Migrant Solidarity 1.4.3 The Political Agency of Migrants Themselves and Cosmopolitan Citizenship 1.4.4 Crises’ Driven Host Attitudes and Xenophobic Acts 1.4.5 Crisis-Steered EU Migration Governance: Multiple and Increasing Constraints for Migrants, Reception Infrastructures and National Policy 1.5 Closing Note References Part Ι: A Crisis Driven Third Wave of Greek Emigration Chapter 2: Greece’s Emigration During the Crisis Beyond the Brain Drain 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Methodology 2.3 What is New About the ‘New Greek Emigration’? 2.4 Necessity Driven Migrants, Career Migrants and Middling Transnationals 2.5 The Changing Emigration Environment in Greece: Migration as a Materialisation of an Existing Aspiration 2.6 The Loosening of Social Constraints 2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 3: The ‘Virtual Return’ Option of the Highly Educated Immigrants: The Case of Greek PhD Holders 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Brain Drain Phenomenon 3.2.1 The Economic, Social and Knowledge Importance of Highly Skilled People 3.2.2 Increase in Tertiary Education and Competition Between Countries to Attract HSM 3.2.3 Return Policies for Highly Skilled – Transnational Communities 3.2.4 Return Policies for Highly Skilled – The ‘Diaspora Option’ and ‘Virtual Return’ 3.3 Brain Drain from Greece 3.3.1 Setting the Tone 3.3.2 Policies to Reverse the Brain Drain 3.4 A Study of Geographic Mobility of Greek PhD Holders 3.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 4: Greek State Schools in Germany and the Impact of ‘New’ Migration 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Non-mixed Greek Schools in Germany 4.3 ‘New’ Migration and Education: Expectations and Choices 4.4 The First Study 4.4.1 Research Sites, Participants and Data Collection 4.4.2 Findings 4.5 The Second Study 4.5.1 Research Sites, Participants and Data Collection 4.5.2 Findings 4.6 Suggestions for Further Study References Part II: Crises and Host Attitudes Chapter 5: Attitudes Towards Syrian Refugees During the ‘Refugee Crisis’ in Greece 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Realistic Group Conflict and Social Identity Perspectives in Understanding Attitudes Towards Migrants 5.3 Data and Measurements 5.4 Findings 5.5 Discussion References Chapter 6: Cognitive Maps, Cultural Distances and National Stereotypes in Times of Crises: Comparing Greece and Hungary 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Related Research and Conceptual Literature 6.3 Research Design 6.4 Findings 6.4.1 Global Images in the General Public in Greece and Hungary 6.4.2 Global Images in the Greek and Hungarian Media 6.5 Discussion and Conclusions 6.5.1 Uniqueness and Belonging 6.5.2 A ‘Southern’ Model 6.5.3 Public Beliefs of Themselves and ‘Others’ References Part III: Solidarity and Claims-Making Under Crises Chapter 7: Political Claims and the So Called ‘Refugee Crisis’ in the Greek Public Sphere, 2015–16 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Discursive Construction of the ‘Refugee Crisis’ 7.3 Method and Data 7.4 The General Traits of Public Discourse on the So Called ‘Refugee Crisis’ in Greece: Actors, Addressees, Issues and Forms of Political Claims 7.5 The Chronicle of the Public Debate on the So Called ‘Refugee Crisis’ in Greece 7.6 Discussion and Conclusions References Chapter 8: An Ephemeral Patriotism: The Rise and Fall of ‘Solidarity to Refugees’ 8.1 ‘Solidarity to Refugees’: The Developmental Cycle of a Cultural Innovation 8.2 The Rise of a New Patriotism: ‘Solidarity to Refugees’ from a Grassroots Movement into a State Project 8.2.1 Birth: Grassroots Empathy in the Caring Border 8.2.2 Consolidation: The Humanitarian Regime 8.2.3 Official Upgrading: ‘Refugee Solidarity’ as a State Project 8.3 The Decline: Excessive Bordering and the Political Contestation of the Ambiguous ‘Asylum Seeker’ 8.3.1 The Internal Border as a Source of Stagnation and Subsequent Protest 8.3.2 The Humanitarian Regime Under Transformation and Eventually in Retreat 8.3.3 The ‘Asylum Seeker,’ a New Political Subject and a Challenging Puzzle 8.4 The Events of Sappho Square 8.4.1 The ‘Pogrom’ 8.4.2 The Threshold: Cultural Incompatibilities 8.5 Conclusion: On the Cultural Limits of an Alternative Politics of Difference 8.5.1 Volatile Tolerance 8.5.2 Innovative Failures References Chapter 9: Claiming Cosmopolitan Citizenship: Migrants’ Protests and Border Controls 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Closed European Borders and Migrants’ Protests in Idomeni, Greece 9.3 Open Borders: Freedom of Movement or Finding a Place in the World? 9.4 Migrants as Cosmopolitan Citizens References Part IV: Mobility Reception Transitions in Times of Crises Chapter 10: The Making of Reception as a System. The Governance of Migrant Mobility and Transformations of Statecraft in Greece Since the Early 2000s 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Problematising Mobility, Reception and Inclusion 10.3 The ‘Transit’ Era: The Unfolding of Exclusions and the Counter Folding of Solidarity 10.4 The Post-2015 Period: The Contradictions of Reception, Refolding Humanitarianism and ‘Transfolding’ Solidarity 10.5 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Governing Migrant (Im)mobility in Greece After the EU-Turkey Statement 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Borders and Bordering Practices 11.3 The Impact of the EU-Turkey Statement on Migrants in Greece 11.4 Legislative Barriers 11.5 Border Encounters 11.6 Asylum as a Barrier 11.7 Re-Bordering Through Access to, or Exclusion from Accommodation 11.8 Conclusions References Chapter 12: Crisis Upon Crisis: Theoretical and Political Reflections on Greece’s Response to the ‘Refugee Crisis’ 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Situating the ‘Crisis’ Within the Evolution of the EU Border Regime: Establishing a Control-Humanitarianism Nexus 12.3 Greece’s Response to the ‘Crisis’: In the Deal We Trust! 12.4 How to Deal with All This? New Kids on the Block 12.5 Sovereignty and Its Discontents 12.6 Conclusion: What Has the ‘Refugee Crisis’ Left Behind? References Part V: Perennial Integration Challenges During Consecutive Crises Chapter 13: Pathways to Integration and Dis-integration: An Assessment of the Greek Immigration Policy for the Inclusion of Immigrants, Applicants and Beneficiaries of International Protection 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Immigration Policy for Integration of Third Country Nationals During the 1990s 13.3 Immigration Policy for Integration of Third Country Nationals During 2000–2008 13.4 Immigration Policy for Integration of Third Country Nationals During 2008–2015: Coming of Age, Missed Opportunities and ‘Dis-integration’ of Immigrants 13.4.1 Citizenship Acquisition, Granting of Voting Rights and Migrant Integration Councils 13.4.2 The Immigration and Social Integration Code & the National Strategy for the Integration of Immigrants 13.4.3 Economic Crisis and the Disintegration of Immigrants 13.5 Immigration Policy for Integration of Third Country Nationals 2016 – Today: The Primacy of the Refugee Issue 13.5.1 Establishment, Abolition and Re-establishment of the Ministry of Migration and Asylum 13.5.2 National Strategy for Integration 2019: Reception and Integration 13.5.3 Integration of Beneficiaries and Applicants for International Protection: The Disparity Between Theory and Practice 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: A ‘Wicked Problem’ for the Municipality of Athens. The ‘Refugee Crisis’ from an Insider’s Perspective 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Construction of a ‘Wicked Problem’ 14.3 Urgent Policy Responses in a Hostile Environment 14.3.1 Surviving in Athens 14.3.2 Xenophobic Environment 14.4 ‘Forced’ Innovations in Organisational and Financial Capacities 14.4.1 Organisational Reforms 14.4.2 Overcoming Financial Barriers 14.5 Innovative Collaborative Schemes for Policy Implementation 14.6 Concluding Remarks 14.6.1 Untapping Policy Capacities 14.6.2 Sustainability in Question 14.6.3 Informing Public Policy Analysis References Chapter 15: The COVID-19 Pandemic and Refugees in Greece: A New Challenge for Healthcare Service Provision, Public Health Programmes and Policymaking 15.1 Introduction 15.2 A Focus on European Legislation, Regulations and Solidarity 15.3 Institutional Framework, Rights and Limitations Regarding Refugee Access to Healthcare Provisions During the COVID-19 Pandemic 15.4 Care Provision Model, Considerations for Greece and Implications for Access 15.5 Health and Social Care Delivery and the Organisation Thereof 15.6 Conclusive Remarks and Key Considerations for Preparedness, Resilience, and Evidence-Informed Policymaking References