Ceramic Manufacturing Techniques and Cultural Traditions in Nubia From the 8th to the 3rd Millennium BC : Examples From Sai Island

In Sudan the first ceramic containers appeared at the beginning of the 9th millennium BC, with the earliest dates c. 8700 BC from Sorourab 2, in Central Sudan, and at c. 8600 BC from the district of Amara West, in Northern Sudan. This book presents a comprehensive critical analysis of diverse ceramic assemblages from Sai Island, in the Middle Nile Valley of Northern Sudan, on the border between ancient Upper and Lower Nubia. The assemblages included in this study cover about five millennia, spanning the period c. 8000 to c. 2500 BC. They go from the initial appearance of ceramic technology within hunting-fishing-gathering communities living in permanent or semi-permanent settlements (locally named ‘Khartoum Variant’ or ‘Mesolithic’ horizon: c. 7600–4800 BC), through the ceramic productions of the first ‘Neolithic’ pastoral societies (Abkan horizon: c. 5550−3700 BC), to those of the Pre-Kerma Nubian culture (c. 3600−2500 BC). A thorough stylistic macroscopic observation of the finds is integrated with a solid technological approach by means of archaeometric petrographic (OM), mineralogical (XRPD) and chemical (XRF) analyses. Data are discussed and compared across a broad geographical area, including Lower and Upper Nubia, Central Sudan and the Egyptian Western Desert. They provide an original synthesis and interpretation of the ceramic traditions in Nubia and Sudan and propose a critical review of the debate on the invention of pottery and the functional and cultural reasons for the emergence of the ceramic technology. Cover 1 Copyright Information 4 Contents 7 Foreword 21 Acknowledgements 23 Introduction 25 The invention of pottery and the cultural significance of ceramic discovery 25 Sai Island in northern Upper Nubia (northern Sudan) 26 Methodological approach and research questions: style, traditions and change 27 Structure of the research 28 1. Nubia and its cultural sequences between the 8th and the 3rd millennium BC: Khartoum Variant, Abkan and Pre-Kerma 29 Introduction 29 Climate, environmental conditions and human occupation during the Early Holocene along the Nile Valley and in the Egyptian Western Desert 29 The Khartoum Variant culture: definition, chronology and settlements 33 Khartoum Variant sites in the region of Abka – Wadi Halfa (Lower Nubia) 33 Khartoum Variant sites at Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia) 34 Climate, environmental conditions and human occupation during the Middle Holocene along the Nile Valley and in the Egyptian Western Desert 37 Abkan sites in the region of Abka − Wadi Halfa (Lower Nubia) 40 The Abkan culture: definition, chronology and settlements 40 Abkan sites at Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia) 41 Climate, environmental conditions and human occupation during the Late Holocene along the Nile Valley and in the Egyptian Western Desert 44 The Pre-Kerma culture: definition, chronology and settlements 46 Pre-Kerma sites at Kerma (Upper Nubia) 46 Pre-Kerma sites at Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia) 47 Figure 1.1 Is a synopsis of the chronological sequences during the Holocene in the regions of Egypt and Sudan mentioned in the text (figure by G. D’Ercole). 30 Figure 1.2 Map of Egypt and Sudan during the Early Holocene (c. 8000−5000 BC) with geographical features and sites cited in the text (figure by G. D’Ercole). 32 Table 1.1 Radiocarbon dates from Khartoum Variant (KV) and Shamarkian (SHK) sites in the Abka-Wadi Halfa region (Lower Nubia). Calibrations were obtained by the author using OxCal v. 4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2013); IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 201 34 Table 1.2 Radiocarbon dates from Khartoum Variant (KV) sites on Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia). Calibrations in Garcea et al. (2016a) based on Riemer et al. (2013). 35 Table 1.3 Radiocarbon dates from Early Neolithic (El Nabta/Al Jerar phases) sites in the Nabta-Kiseiba region (Western Desert). When more dates were available, for each period/site is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations were obtained b 36 Table 1.4 Radiocarbon dates from Mesolithic sites in the Kerma region (Upper Nubia). When more dates were available, for each period is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations in Honegger and Williams (2015) based on Riemer et al. (2013). 37 Figure 1.3 Map of Egypt and Sudan during the Middle Holocene (c. 5000−3500 BC) with geographical features and sites cited in the text (figure by G. D’Ercole). 39 Table 1.5 Radiocarbon dates from Abkan (ABK) and Post-Shamarkian (Post-SHK) sites in the Abka-Wadi Halfa region (Lower Nubia). When more dates were available, for each site is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations were obtained by the au 41 Table 1.6 Radiocarbon dates from Abkan (ABK) sites on Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia). Calibrations in Garcea et al. (2016a) based on Riemer et al. (2013). 42 Table 1.7 Radiocarbon dates from Early Nubian sites in the Laqiya region (Northwest Sudan). When more dates were available, for each site is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations in Lange and Nordström (2006). 42 Table 1.8 Radiocarbon dates from Middle and Late Neolithic (El Ghanam, Ru’at El Baqar phases) sites in the Nabta-Kiseiba region (Western Desert). When more dates were available, for each period/site is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibratio 43 Table 1.9 Radiocarbon dates from Neolithic sites in the Kerma region (Upper Nubia). When more dates were available, for each period is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations in Honegger and Williams (2015) based on Riemer et al. (2013). 43 Figure 1.4 Map of Egypt and Sudan during the Late Holocene (c. 3500−2500 BC) with geographical features and sites cited in the text (figure by G. D’Ercole). 45 Table 1.10 Radiocarbon dates from Pre-Kerma (PK)/Kerma sites in the Kerma region (Upper Nubia). When more dates were available, for each period is provided the oldest and the youngest date. Calibrations in Honegger and Williams (2015) based on Riemer et a 47 Table 1.11 Radiocarbon dates from Pre-Kerma (PK)/Kerma sites on Sai Island (northern Upper Nubia). Calibrations in Hildebrand and Schilling (2016) by OxCal v. 4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2013); IntCal13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013). 48 Table 1.12 Radiocarbon dates from A-Groups sites in the Laqiya region (Northwest Sudan). Calibrations in Lange (2003). 48 2. Sai Island: archaeological research and cultural sequence 49 Introduction 49 Geological setting and paleo-climatic reconstruction 49 The archaeological sites on the island 50 Selected sites 53 Site 8-B-10C 53 Site 8-B-76 56 Site 8-B-10A 59 Figure 2.1 Geographical location of Sai Island and schematic geological and morphological map of northern Sudan (modified after D’Ercole et al. 2015). 50 Figure 2.2 Geological map of Sai Island with the location of the four sites from which it comes the pottery sample (modified after D’Ercole et al. 2015). 51 Figure 2.3 View of the interior landscape of Sai Island with the profile of the Jebel Abri in the background (photo by G. D’Ercole). 52 Figure 2.4 View of the western riverbank of Sai Island with young alluvial sediments and typical riverine vegetation (photo by G. D’Ercole) 52 Figure 2.5 Excavation at site 8-B-10C (photo by R. Ceccacci). 54 Figure 2.6 Plan of levels 1 (on the left) and 2 (on the right) of site 8-B-10C showing hut floors, features and post holes (modified after Garcea 2011−2012). 55 Figure 2.7 Excavation at site 8-B-76 (photo by E. A. A. Garcea). 57 Figure 2.8 Estimated extension of site 8-B-52A (on the left) and schematic map (on the right) showing the three silos from which it comes the ceramic sample analysed (map modified after Hildebrand and Shilling 2016). 58 Figure 2.9 Site 8-B-52A: detail of a ‘two level units’ pit with the slab of schist used to seal the opening of the pit (photo by G. D’Ercole). 59 Figure 2.10 Excavation at site 8-B-10A (photo by R. Ceccacci). 60 3. Ceramic productions on Sai Island: 61 Table 3.1 Distribution of classifiable and unclassifiable sherds according to the sites. 61 analysis of the macroscopic data 61 Materials and methods 61 Site 8-B-10C 62 State of preservation 62 Preparation: clay processing and addition of non-plastic inclusions 63 Production: decoration techniques, implements, elements, motifs and structure of the decoration 66 Production: shaping 66 Production: surface treatment 70 Spatial distribution 72 Preparation: clay processing and addition of non-plastic inclusions 74 State of preservation 74 Production: shaping 75 Production: decoration techniques, implements, elements, motifs and the structure of the decoration and surface treatment 76 Site 8-B-52A 77 State of preservation 77 Preparation: clay processing and addition of non-plastic inclusions 78 Production: shaping 78 Production: decoration techniques, implements, elements, motifs and structure of the decoration 81 Production: surface treatment 84 Site 8-B-10A 86 State of preservation 86 Preparation: clay processing and addition of non-plastic components 87 Production: shaping 89 Production: decoration techniques, implements, elements, motifs and structure of decoration 90 Production: surface treatment 93 Table 3.2 Stratigraphic distribution of classifiable and unclassifiable sherds from site 8-B-10C. 63 Table 3.3 Stratigraphic distribution of types of inclusions from site 8-B-10C. 63 Figure 3.1 Angularity of mineral inclusions from site 8-B-10C. 64 Table 3.4 Frequency, sphericity and angularity of inclusions from site 8-B-10C. 64 Figure 3.2 Distribution of angular and rounded inclusions in relation to the different types of textures form site 8-B-10C. 65 Table 3.5 Stratigraphic distribution of types of textures from site 8-B-10C. 65 Figure 3.3 Distribution of mineral and organic inclusions in relation to the different types of textures from site 8-B-10C. 66 Table 3.6 Stratigraphic distribution of body parts of the vessel from site 8-B-10C. 66 Figure 3.4 Sherd thicknesses from site 8-B-10C. 67 Table 3.7 Stratigraphic distribution of decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-10C. 67 Table 3.8 Stratigraphic distribution of decorative techniques from site 8-B-10C. 67 Table 3.9 Stratigraphic distribution of tools used for rocker stamping from site 8-B-10C. 68 Table 3.10 Stratigraphic distribution of tools and decorative motifs from site 8-B-10C. 69 Figure 3.5 Ranges of the lengths of decorative motifs from site 8-B-10C (minimum, maximum and average). 70 Figure 3.6 Ranges of the teeth numbers of combs with evenly serrated edges from site 8-B-10C (minimum, maximum and average). 70 Figure 3.7 Percentages of burnishing from site 8-B-10C. 71 Table 3.11 Stratigraphic distribution of decorative structures from site 8-B-10C. 71 Table 3.12 Stratigraphic distribution of inside and outside burnishing from site 8-B-10C. 71 Table 3.13 Stratigraphic distribution of polishing from site 8-B-10C. 72 Table 3.14 Distribution of polishing in relation to decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-10C. 72 Table 3.15 Distribution of textures in relation to the presence /absence of polishing from site 8-B-10C. 72 Figure 3.8 Spatial distribution of ceramic sherds from the surface (on the left) and from level 1 (on the right) at site 8-B-10C. Blue symbols (from 1 to 5 sherds/square); green symbols (from 6 to 10 sherds/square); orange symbols (from 11 to 20 sherds/sq 73 Figure 3.9 Spatial distribution of ceramic sherds from levels 2 (on the left) and 3 (on the right) at site 8-B-10C. Blue symbols (from 1 to 5 sherds/square); green symbols (from 6 to 10 sherds/square) (figure by G. D’Ercole). 73 Figure 3.10 Spatial distribution of ceramic sherds with fine (in red on the left), medium (in green in the middle) and coarse texture (in blue on the right) at site 8-B-10C (figure by G. D’Ercole). 74 Table 3.16 Stratigraphic distribution of types of textures from site 8-B-76. 74 Figure 3.11 Angularity of mineral inclusions from site 8-B-76. 75 Table 3.17 Frequency, sphericity and angularity of inclusions from site 8-B-76. 75 Figure 3.12 Sherd thicknesses from site 8-B-76. 76 Table 3.18 Stratigraphic distribution of types of inclusions from site 8-B-76. 76 Table 3.19 Stratigraphic distribution of body parts of the vessel from site 8-B-76. 76 Figure 3.13 Percentages of burnishing from site 8-B-76. 77 Table 3.20 Stratigraphic distribution of decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-76. 77 Table 3.21 Stratigraphic distribution of inside and outside burnishing from site 8-B-76. 77 Table 3.22 Classifiable and unclassifiable sherds from site 8-B-52A. 78 Table 3.23 Types of inclusions from site 8-B-52A. 78 Figure 3.14 Angularity of mineral inclusions from site 8-B-52A. 79 Table 3.24 Frequency, sphericity and angularity of inclusions from site 8-B-52A. 79 Figure 3.15 Sherd thicknesses from site 8-B-52A. 80 Table 3.25 Types of textures from site 8-B-52A. 80 Table 3.26 Body parts of the vessel from site 8-B-52A. 80 Table 3.27 Decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-52A. 81 Table 3.28 Types of decorative techniques from site 8-B-52A. 81 Table 3.29 Tools used for rocker stamping from site 8-B-52A. 82 Table 3.30 Tools and decorative motifs from site 8-B-52A. 82 Figure 3.16 Ranges of the lengths of combs and double-pronged tools from site 8-B-52A (minimum, maximum and average). 83 Table 3.31 Types of decorative structures from site 8-B-52A. 83 Table 3.32 Inside and outside burnishing from site 8-B-52A. 84 Figure 3.17 Percentages of burnishing from site 8-B-52A. 85 Table 3.33 Types of polishing from site 8-B-52A. 85 Table 3.34 Distribution of polishing in relation to decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-52A. 86 Table 3.35 Classifiable and unclassifiable sherds from site 8-B-10A. 86 Table 3.36 Stratigraphic distribution of classifiable and unclassifiable sherds from sector west of site 8-B-10A. 86 Table 3.37 Stratigraphic distribution of classifiable and unclassifiable sherds from sector east of site 8-B-10A. 87 Figure 3.18 Angularity of mineral inclusions from site 8-B-10A. 88 Table 3.39 Frequency, sphericity and angularity of inclusions from site 8-B-10A. 88 Table 3.40 Types of textures from site 8-B-10A. 89 Table 3.41 Body parts of the vessel from site 8-B-10A. 89 Figure 3.19 Sherd thicknesses from site 8-B-10A. 90 Table 3.42 Decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-10A. 90 Table 3.43 Types of decorative techniques from site 8-B-10A. 91 Table 3.44 Stratigraphic distribution of decorative techniques from sector east of site 8-B-10A. 91 Figure 3.20 Ranges of the lengths of decorative motifs from site 8-B-10A (minimum, maximum and average). 92 Table 3.45 Types of decorative structures from site 8-B-10A. 92 Table 3.46 Inside and outside burnishing from site 8-B-10A. 93 Figure 3.21 Percentages of burnishing from site 8-B-10A. 94 Table 3.47 Types of polishing from site 8-B-10A. 94 Table 3.48 Distribution of textures in relation to the presence /absence of polishing from site 8-B-10A. 94 Table 3.49 Distribution of polishing in relation to decorated and undecorated sherds from site 8-B-10A. 95 Plate 3.1 Abkan pottery from site 8-B-76. (1−3) Globular and straight walled jars. Drawings by T. D’Este. 96 Plate 3.2 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. (1−4) Bowls with straight walls; (5−7) slightly convex bowls; (8) saucer-shaped bowl; (9−10) hemispherical bowls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 97 Plate 3.3 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. (1−5) Ovoid jars; (6−9) jars with straight walls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 98 Plate 3.4 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−12) Slightly convex bowls and bowls with straight walls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 99 Plate 3.5 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−4) Hemispherical and straight walled bowls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 100 Plate 3.6 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−9) Hemispherical and straight walled bowls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 101 Plate 3.7 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−3) Hemispherical and straight walled bowls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 102 Plate 3.8 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−11) Jars with straight walls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 103 Plate 3.9 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector East. (1−7) Closed forms. Drawings by T. D’Este. 104 Plate 3.10 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. (1−5) Sector East. Closed forms; (6−12) Sector West. Globular or ovoid jars and hemispherical bowls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 105 Plate 3.11 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. Sector West. (1−2) Slightly convex bowls; (3) bowl with straight walls; (4−7) jars with straight walls. Drawings by T. D’Este. 106 Plate 3.12 Khartoum Variant pottery from site 8-B-10C. (1) Rim decorated with milled impressions; (2) ceramic sherd possibily used as comb; (3−7) dotted wavy line decorations. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 107 Plate 3.13 (1−6) Khartoum Variant pottery from site 8-B-10C. Zigzag patterns produced using the rocker stamp technique with a roulette; (7−9) Abkan pottery from site 8-B-76. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 108 Plate 3.14 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. Large sherd decorated using the rocker stamp technique with a plain edge tool. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 109 Plate 3.15 (1) External and (2) internal surface of a ceramic sherd possibly re-used as ‘spoon’. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 110 Plate 3.16 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. Sherds decorated using the rocker stamp technique with (1−3) a plain edge tool; (4−5) a comb with an evenly serrated edge; (6) a comb with an unevenly serrated edge. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 111 Plate 3.17 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. (1−7) Rimsherds decorated with simple incisions or impressions. 112 Plate 3.18 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-52A. (1) Undecoraetd sherd with a little hole close to the rim; (2−6) sherds decorated using the alternately pivoting stamp technique (APS). Photos by R. Ceccacci. 113 Plate 3.19 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. (1−13) Sherds decorated with incisions with (1−8) simple; (9) criss-cross; (10−13) herring-bone patterns. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 114 Plate 3.20 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. (1−6) Black-topped rims; (7−8) sherds decorated using the rocker stamp technique; (9−11) sherds decorated with simple impressions. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 115 Plate 3.21 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. (1−14) Sherds decorated using the rouletting technique. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 116 Plate 3.22 Pre-Kerma pottery from site 8-B-10A. (On top) Sherd decorated using the rouletting technique; (below) sherd showing marks of burnishing on the internal surface. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 117 Plate 3.23 Photos of fractures showing (1) angular inclusions; (2) rounded inclusions; (3) calcareous inclusions; (4) organic inclusions. Photos by R. Ceccacci. 118 4. Archaeometric analysis 119 Introduction 119 Selection and preparation of the samples 119 The ceramic samples 119 The sediment samples 123 Laboratory analyses 125 Optical microscopy (OM) 125 X-ray powder diffraction analysis (XRPD) 125 X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) 126 Results: the ceramic samples 126 X-ray powder diffraction analysis 126 Optical microscopy 129 X-ray fluorescence analysis 133 Results: the sediment samples 143 X-ray powder diffraction analysis 143 Optical microscopy 145 X-ray fluorescence analysis 146 The ceramic and sediment samples: classification criteria and comparison of results 149 Table 4.1 Total number of analysed samples (Acronyms ABK; KV; PK stay for: Abkan; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma). 119 Table 4.2a Provenance and macroscopic features of the analysed samples (Acronyms ABK; APS; BT; DWL; KV; PK; S stay for: Abkan; Alternately Pivoting Stamp; Black Topped; Dotted Wavy Line; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma; Surface). 120 Table 4.2b Provenance and macroscopic features of the analysed samples (Acronyms ABK; APS; BT; DWL; KV; PK; S stay for: Abkan; Alternately Pivoting Stamp; Black Topped; Dotted Wavy Line; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma; Surface). 121 Table 4.2c Provenance and macroscopic features of the analysed samples (Acronyms ABK; APS; BT; DWL; KV; PK; S stay for: Abkan; Alternately Pivoting Stamp; Black Topped; Dotted Wavy Line; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma; Surface). 122 Table 4.2d Provenance and macroscopic features of the analysed samples (Acronyms ABK; APS; BT; DWL; KV; PK; S stay for: Abkan; Alternately Pivoting Stamp; Black Topped; Dotted Wavy Line; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma; Surface). 123 Figure 4.1 Profile of site 8-B-76. The arrows indicate the depths to which the sediments samples were taken (figure by G. D’Ercole). 124 Table 4.3 Provenance of the analysed local sediment samples (Acronyms ABK; KV; PK stay for: Abkan; Khartoum Variant; Pre-Kerma). 124 Table 4.4a Mineral composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps (C.M.: Clay Minerals; Qtz: Quartz; Kfs: K-feldspar; Pl: Plagioclase; Cal: Calcite; Px: Pyroxene; Amp: Amphibole; Zrn: Zircon). Quantities: XXXXX – predominant; XXXX – abundant; 127 Table 4.4b Mineral composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps (C.M.: Clay Minerals; Qtz: Quartz; Kfs: K-feldspar; Pl: Plagioclase; Cal: Calcite; Px: Pyroxene; Amp: Amphibole; Zrn: Zircon). Quantities: XXXXX – predominant; XXXX – abundant; 128 Figure 4.2 Diffractograms representative of the three identified XRD groups of ceramics: QPl (quartz-plagioclase); Q (quartz) and QKfs (quartz-K-feldspar). 129 Figure 4.3 Thin section and SEM images showing an Abkan sample from site 8-B-76 with ilmenite (Ilm), zircon (Zrn) and rutile (Rut) inclusions (Images a−a1) and a micrite calcite aggregate (Image b) (modified after D’Ercole et al. 2017). 132 Figure 4.4 EDS spectrum showing the presence of ilmenite (FeTiO3) (on top) and zircon (ZrSiO4) (below). 133 Figure 4.5 Thin section and SEM images showing a Pre-Kerma sample from site 8-B-10A with amphibole (Amp) and collophane (Col) inclusions (Images a−a1) and carbon inclusions (Image b) (modified after D’Ercole et al. 2017). 134 Figure 4.6 EDS spectrum showing the presence of collophane (microcrystalline hydrated fluoroapatite) (on top), amphibole (in the middle) and carbon inclusions (below). 135 Figure 4.7 Thin sections and SEM images showing an Abkan sample (Image a) with a metamorphic rock fragment (Mrf) and a charcoal inclusion (Chr) and a Khartoum Variant sample from site 8-B-10C (Image b) with zircon (Zr) and ilmenite (Ilm) inclusions (modif 136 Table 4.5a Major elements composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Major elements and LOI (Loss on ignition) in w%. 137 Table 4.5b Major elements composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Major elements and LOI (Loss on ignition) in w%. 138 Figure 4.8 CaO vs. K2O plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from si 139 Figure 4.9 MgO vs. K2O plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from si 139 Figure 4.10 Fe2O3 vs. TiO2 plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples fro 140 Table 4.6a Trace elements composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Trace elements in ppm. 141 Table 4.6b Trace elements composition of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Trace elements in ppm. 142 Figure 4.11 Rb vs. Y plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from site 8-B-52 143 Figure 4.12 Rb vs. Zr plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from site 8-B-5 144 Table 4.7 Mineral composition of the analysed local sediment samples (C.M.: Clay Minerals; Chl: Chlorite; Qtz: Quartz; Kfs: K-feldspar; Pl: Plagioclase; Cal: Calcite; Dol: Dolomite; Px: Pyroxene). Quantities: XXXXX – predominant; XXXX – abundant; XXX – g 144 Figure 4.13 Diffractograms representative of the two identified XRD groups of local sediments: QPl (quartz-plagioclase) and QCal (quartz-calcite). 145 Table 4.8 Major elements composition of the analysed local sediment samples in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Major elements and LOI (Loss on ignition) in w%. 146 Figure 4.14 CaO vs. Al2O3 plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; circle 147 Figure 4.15 MgO/K2O vs. SiO2/Al2O3 plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; circ 148 Figure 4.16 Fe2O3/TiO2 vs. SiO2/Al2O3 plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; c 148 Table 4.9 Trace elements composition of the analysed local sediment samples in relation to the identified mineralogical/petrographic groups (x: average composition, σ: standard deviation). Trace elements in ppm. 149 Figure 4.17 Rb vs. Y plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; circles are sample 150 Figure 4.18 Y vs. Nb plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; circles are sample 150 Figure 4.19 Rb vs. Zr plot. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; grey = QCal group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; squares are samples from site 8-B-76; circles are sampl 151 Table 4.10 Main groups, fabrics and sub-groups of the analysed ceramic samples and clay lumps. Main groups: QPl: quartz-plagioclase; QKfs: quartz-K-feldspar; Q: quartz. Fabrics: QPl-Veg: quartz-plagioclase-vegetal; QPl-Col: quartz-plagioclase-collophane; 152 Table 4.11 Main groups and fabrics of the analysed local sediment samples. Main groups: QPl: quartz-plagioclase; QCal: quartz-calcite. Fabrics: QPl-Col: quartz-plagioclase-collophane; QPl-Cha: quartz-plagioclase-charcoal. Mineral symbols mentioned are as 153 Figure 4.20 CaO vs. K2O plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from s 154 Figure 4.21 MgO vs. K2O plot (wt %). The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from s 154 Figure 4.22 MgO/K2O vs. SiO2/Al2O3. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; orange = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols refers to the sites: triangles are samples from site 8-B-10A; diamonds are samples from si 155 Figure 4.23 Biplot of the PCA analysis (PC1 versus PC2) for derived pottery and clayey sediments, showing the clusters identified. The colour of symbols refers to the XRD groups: blue = QPl group; = QKfs group; green = Q group. The shape of the symbols re 156 Plate 4.1 Microphotographs of examples from Pre-Kerma samples from fabric QPl-Veg. (a, c, e) Cross Polarized Light; (b, d, f) Plane Polarized Light. Photographs by G. Eramo. 157 Plate 4.2 Microphotographs of examples from Pre-Kerma samples (a−d) from fabric QPl (a−b) and QPl−Col (c−d) and from Abkan samples (e−f) from fabric QPl−Chr. (a, c, e) Cross Polarized Light; (b, d, f) Plane Polarized Light. Photographs by G. Eramo. 158 Plate 4.3 Microphotographs of examples from Pre-Kerma samples (a−d) and Khartoum Variant samples (e−f) showing mineral phases and organic structures recognized under the microscope. (a, e, f) Cross Polarized Light; (b, c, d) Plane Polarized Light. Photogr 159 Plate 4.4 Microphotographs of examples from Khartoum Variant samples from fabric QKfs-Bt (a−b); QKfs-Ms (c−d) and Q (e−f). (a, c, e) Cross Polarized Light; (b, d, f) Plane Polarized Light. Photographs by G. Eramo. 160 Plate 4.5 Microphotographs of examples from local sediment samples from fabric QPl (a−d); and QPl-Cal (e−f). (a, c, e) Cross Polarized Light; (b, d, f) Plane Polarized Light. Photographs by G. Eramo. 161 5. Comparing chaînes operatoires: continuity and discontinuity in the ceramic assemblages of Sai Island 163 Introduction 163 Discussion and comparison of the macroscopic data 163 Preparation: clay processing and addition of non-plastic inclusions 163 Production: shaping and sur