Career Patterns and Policies of Female Leaders in China

"China's late Chairman Mao Zedong once said "Women hold up half the world", but in several respects the full emancipation of women still remains a global challenge. This book, based on extensive empirical studies on Chinese female leaders in different fields, develops a "female professional status attainment theory". It summarizes the conditions for Chinese women to become leaders in various professions as the following: increased human, economic and social capital; gender equality awareness; gender-friendly environment; and improved work-life-balance. The book also proposes supporting policies for the development of high-level female talents female leaders in three different sectors: women in politics, in professional fields, and in enterprise management. With the comprehensive perspectives of female leaders' development that addresses women's unique needs in organizations, this book is a good choice for researchers and readers who are interested in China's top-level talent development, gender equality and women's professional attainment."--Publisher's website Foreword Preface Introduction Contents About the Author About the Translator Part I Introduction 1 Research Framework and Methods 1.1 Theoretical Framework 1.2 Theoretical Innovation 1.2.1 No Pains, No Gains for Female Leaders 1.2.2 A Gender-Friendly Environment Is Needed for the Growth of Female Leaders 1.3 Career Patterns of Female Leaders 1.4 Research Methods on Career Patterns of Female Leaders 1.5 Policy Research to Promote the Growth of Female Leaders 1.5.1 Strategic Importance Should Be Stressed on Policies of Promoting the Growth of Female Leaders 1.5.2 Multidimensional Gender Assessment Should Be Given on Social Policies to Promote the Growth of Female Leaders 1.5.3 Proposing Feasible Policies 1.6 Framework of the Book 1.6.1 A General Introduction to the Career Patterns of Female Leaders 1.6.2 Key Factors Affecting Female Leaders’ Growth 1.6.3 Career Patterns of Female Leaders in Politics 1.6.4 Career Patterns of Professional Women 1.6.5 Career Patterns of Female Leaders in Enterprise Management 1.6.6 Policies for Promoting the Career Development of Female Leaders 2 Significance of Balanced Patterns for Leaders in Gender Structure 2.1 Female Talents Are an Important Subject of China’s Talent Growth Plan 2.2 The Strategic Importance of Promoting the Growth of Female Talents 2.3 Improving the Balance of Talent Gender Structure 2.4 Theoretical Questions to Be Studied in Boosting China’s Female Talent Development 3 A Brief Introduction of Female Leaders: An Analysis Based on Census Data 3.1 A General Introduction to Female Professional and Leaders in Various Fields 3.1.1 Overall Scale and Structure 3.1.2 Gender Structure 3.1.3 Distribution in Urban and Rural Areas 3.1.4 Marital Status 3.1.5 Average Working Hours Per Week 3.2 Female Leaders in Politics and Business Management 3.2.1 Overall Scale and Structure 3.2.2 Gender Structure 3.2.3 Average Age 3.2.4 Marital Status 3.2.5 Average Weekly Working Hours 3.3 Female Professionals 3.3.1 Scale and Growth 3.3.2 Occupational Structure 3.3.3 Gender Structure 3.3.4 Age Distributions 3.3.5 Marital Status 3.3.6 Weekly Working Hours 3.3.7 Educational Levels and Distribution of Professional Titles 4 Research Review on Female Leaders 4.1 Theoretical Perspectives of the Studies on Female Leaders 4.1.1 Perspectives of Talent Studies and Success Studies 4.1.2 Perspective of Human Resources 4.1.3 Theory of Female Leadership 4.1.4 Theory of Occupational Status Attainment 4.2 Factors Influencing the Development of Female Talents 4.2.1 Theory of Education and Work Continuity 4.2.2 Theory of “Work-Family Conflict and Absence of Supportive Family Environment” 4.2.3 Theory of Deficiency of Women’s Social Networking 4.3 Research Review on Types of Female Talents 4.3.1 Research Review on Female Leaders in Politics 4.3.2 Research Review on Female Professionals 4.3.3 Research Review on Women Management in Enterprises Part II Key Factors Affecting the Development of Female Leaders 5 Capital Accumulation of Female Leaders 5.1 Advantages of Female Leaders 5.1.1 Female Leaders Were Able to Shoulder Multi-responsibilities 5.1.2 Female Leaders Were Comparatively Younger 5.1.3 Distribution of Ethnic Minority Groups in Female Leaders: Close to the Average Proportion 5.1.4 Female Leaders Had Higher Starting Point in Career 5.1.5 Career Promotion of Female Leaders 5.2 Female Leaders Possess High-Standard Multi-Capitals 5.2.1 High-Quality Human Capital 5.2.2 High-Standard Economic Capital 5.2.3 Accumulating Social Capital 5.2.4 High Family Social Capital 5.3 Active Social Communications 5.4 Health and Confidence 5.4.1 Sound in Physical Health but Stressed Psychologically 5.4.2 High Self-appraisal 5.4.3 Female Leaders Feel Greatly Stressed 6 Ideology of Gender Equality Encourages Women to Become Leaders 6.1 Hypothesis and Data Description 6.1.1 Hypothesis 6.1.2 Introduction to Survey and Data 6.1.3 Measurement of Gender Ideology 6.2 Female Leaders Normally Have More Advanced Gender Ideology 6.2.1 The Comparison of Gender Equality Ideology Among High-Level Talents 6.2.2 Differences on the Ideology of Gender Role Division Among Women of Different Occupations 6.2.3 Female Leaders Had More Advanced Ideology on Gender Role Division Emphasizing Equality 6.2.4 High-Level Talents’ Viewpoints on Balance Between Work and Family 6.3 Gender Comparison: Factors Affecting Leaders’ Gender Ideology 6.3.1 Age Groups and Attitudes Towards Family Gender Role Division 6.3.2 Types of Occupations and Family Gender Role Division 6.3.3 Political Identity and Gender Ideology 6.3.4 Family Cultural Background and Gender Ideology 6.4 Balance Between Work and Family—Positive Effects of Modern Gender Ideology 6.5 Research Findings and Theory Discussions 7 Gender-Friendly Environment Is Essential 7.1 Quota System and Gender Environment of an Organization 7.2 Studies on Relations Between Quota System and Organizational Gender Environment 7.3 Data Explanation 7.4 Hypotheses and Models for Study 7.5 Institutions with Gender-Friendly Environment Ensure the Growth of Female Leaders 7.5.1 Gender Discrimination Can Be Significantly Reduced in Work Units with More Than 30% Women Leaders 7.5.2 Gender Discrimination Can Be Significantly Reduced in Work Units with More Than 30% Women Leaders in Three Fields 7.5.3 Gender Discrimination Can Be Significantly Reduced with More Than 30% Women Leaders in Institutions Both Inside and Outside the System 7.6 Conclusions and Further Discussions 8 Wisdom on the Balance of Family and Work 8.1 Dilemma Faced by Women in Balancing Work and Family 8.2 Most Female Leaders Shoulder Both Work Responsibilities and Family Responsibilities 8.2.1 Most Female Leaders Married at a Mature Age 8.2.2 Most Female Leaders Enjoyed Equality in Husband-and-Wife Relationship 8.2.3 Most Female Leaders Made Their Own Decisions 8.3 Time Management of Female Leaders 8.4 How Do Female Leaders Balance Work and Family 8.5 Labor Division and Support in Child Caring 8.6 Conclusions and Suggestions for Policy-Making 8.6.1 Conclusions 8.6.2 Suggestions for Policy-Making Part III Research on Career Patterns of Female Leaders in Politics 9 Factors Affecting Female Leaders in Politics 9.1 Data Explanation and Theoretical Hypothesis 9.1.1 Data Explanation 9.1.2 Theoretical Hypothesis 9.2 Model of Studies 9.2.1 Variables 9.2.2 Basic Information About the Samples 9.2.3 Model 9.3 Findings and Further Discussion 9.3.1 Gender Comparison on Factors Influencing the Promotion of Leaders in Politics 9.3.2 A Comparative Study on Factors Affecting the Promotion of Female and Male Leaders in Politics 10 Party Mechanism of Political Participation of Female Leaders 10.1 Institutional Setting-up for Leaders Who Are Party Members 10.2 Participation of Female Other Political Party Members in Politics and Its Political Significance 10.3 Characteristics of Female Leaders with Identity of Other Political Parties 10.3.1 Most Were Elite with High-Educational Level 10.3.2 Most Were Professionals 10.3.3 More Opportunities to Participate in Politics 10.3.4 Professional Ethics of Being Self-confident and Independent 10.3.5 The Notion of Gender Equality 10.4 Institutional Elements and Social Elements Resulting in the Lower Proportion of Female Leaders 10.5 Suggestions for Policy-Making 11 Characteristics of Female Leaders in Politics in Social Transformation 11.1 Research Background 11.2 Introduction to Theories of Elite Status Attainment and Research Review 11.2.1 Intra-generational Mobility Perspective: Achieved Factors and Status Attainment of Political Elite 11.2.2 Intra-generational Mobility Perspective: Ascribed Factors and Status Attainment of Political Elite 11.2.3 Social Gender Perspective: Gender and Status Attainment of Political Elite 11.3 Data, Variables and Models 11.3.1 Basic Information of Data and Samples 11.3.2 Discrete-Time Hazard Model 11.3.3 Variables and Operative Definition 11.4 Data Analysis 11.4.1 Gender Differences in the Acquisition of Politic Elite Status of Women and Men in the Medium Period of Reform 11.4.2 Gender Differences in the Attainment of Politic Elite Status of Women and Men in the Deepening Period of Reform 11.4.3 Discussions and Theoretical Hypothesis 11.5 Conclusions and Further Discussions 12 Career Promotion for Women at Bureau-Director Level from Life Course Perspective 12.1 Life Course Theory and Research Review 12.2 Career Promotion of Men and Women Political Elite Viewed from Life Course Approach 12.3 Empirical Analysis on Career Promotion of Bureau-Director Level Men and Women Political Elite 12.3.1 Model, Methods and Data 12.3.2 Data Analysis 12.4 Conclusions and Suggestions for Policy-Making 12.4.1 Conclusions 12.4.2 Suggestions for Policy-Making Part IV Research on Career Patterns of Female Professionals 13 Situation and Characteristics of Female Professionals 13.1 An Overview on Female Professionals 13.2 Career Patterns of Female Professionals 13.3 Double Responsibilities Shouldered by Female Professionals 13.4 Gender Notions of Female Professionals 13.5 Problems in the Development of Female Professionals 13.5.1 Regional Imbalance 13.5.2 “Gender” Label Attached to Female Professionals Throughout Their Career 13.5.3 Double Roles of Female Professionals 13.5.4 Child Education Hinders the Career Development of Female Professionals 14 Upward Mobility of Female Professionals and Affecting Factors 14.1 Questions 14.2 Data Explanation 14.3 Factors Influencing the Promotion of Professionals 14.3.1 Literature and Hypothesis 14.3.2 Model and Analysis 14.4 Conclusions and Further Discussions 14.4.1 The Influence of Ascribed Factors and Achieved Factors on the Promotion of Professionals 14.4.2 Political Capital and Promotion 14.4.3 Social Support and Promotion 14.4.4 Gender Role and Promotion 14.4.5 Conclusions 15 Gender Segregation and Institutional Discrimination in Professional Fields 15.1 Research Background 15.2 Institutional Environment for the Career Development of Female Professionals 15.2.1 Gender Diversity 15.2.2 Gender Diversity and Network Activity 15.2.3 Gender Diversity and Network Exclusiveness 15.3 Data Analysis 15.3.1 Expositions on Samples 15.3.2 Variable Selection 15.3.3 Data Analysis 15.3.4 Findings and Discussions 15.3.5 Suggestions for Policy-Making 15.4 The Impact of Gender Segregation on the Career Development of Female Professionals 15.4.1 Review on Gender Segregation in Professional Fields 15.4.2 Research Hypothesis 15.4.3 Data and Analysis 15.4.4 Model Analysis and Findings 15.4.5 Findings of Approach Analysis 15.5 Conclusions Part V Research on Career Patterns of Female Leaders in Enterprise Management 16 Career Patterns of Female Senior Executives in Enterprises 16.1 Basic Information of Female Senior Executives in Enterprises 16.2 Career of Female Senior Executives in Enterprises 16.2.1 Starting of Career 16.2.2 Job Mobility 16.2.3 Present Career Status 16.3 Career Achievement and Job Satisfaction Rate 16.3.1 Career Achievement 16.3.2 Job Satisfaction Rate 16.3.3 Major Cause of Success 16.3.4 Political Capital 16.4 Balance of Work and Family 16.4.1 Spending More Time on Work 16.4.2 Sharing More Family Responsibility 16.4.3 Women Faced More Conflict on Work and Family 16.4.4 Strategies of Balancing Work and Family 16.5 Institutional Environment 16.5.1 Career Planning with the Help of Institutions or Leaders 16.5.2 Resources and Opportunities Mostly Provided by Institutions/Leaders 16.5.3 Less Gender Discrimination in Gender Friendly Institutions 17 Career Patterns of Female Entrepreneurs 17.1 Basic Information of Female Entrepreneurs 17.1.1 Age Distribution 17.1.2 Family Background 17.1.3 Marital Status 17.2 Capital Accumulation 17.2.1 Human Capital 17.2.2 Social Capital 17.2.3 Political Capital 17.3 Social Support 17.4 Factors Influencing Female Entrepreneurs’ Success 17.4.1 Gender Comparison of Entrepreneurs’ Political Involvement 17.4.2 Factors Influencing Women and Men Entrepreneurs’ Political Involvement 17.4.3 Gender Notion Comparison of Women and Men Entrepreneurs 17.4.4 Factors Influencing the Gender Notion of Entrepreneurs Part VI Policies for Promoting Career Development of Female Leaders 18 Investing on Women: China’s New Engine of Development 18.1 Basic Information of Women’s Growth in China 18.1.1 Women’s Participation in Politics and Contribution to Social Welfare Organizations 18.1.2 Females Contribute to the Economic Construction of China 18.2 The Significance of Investing on Women 18.2.1 National Significance: Close Connection with National Economy 18.2.2 Practical Significance: Microscopic Social Effects of Investing on Women 18.3 Suggestions for Policy Making 19 Policies for Promoting the Growth of Female Leaders in Politics 19.1 Establishing the Model of Fit 19.1.1 Fit Theory and Fit Model 19.1.2 Political Morality Fit 19.1.3 Job Fit 19.1.4 Society Fit 19.1.5 Culture Fit and Family Fit 19.2 Quotas for Women 19.2.1 A Comparison of Quotas in China and Other Countries 19.2.2 Implications of World Quotas System for Women’s Political Participation 19.3 To Make Definite Public Policies Promoting the Growth of Female Leaders in Politics 19.3.1 To Accelerate the Making and Implementing of Laws and Regulations with More Researches 19.3.2 To Promote the Growth of Female Leaders with More Coordination and Communication 19.3.3 To Provide More and Better Training for Women so that They Can Improve Their Qualities and Abilities 19.3.4 To Provide Better Social Environment for the Growth of Female Leaders in Politics 20 Policies for Promoting the Growth of Female Professionals 20.1 To Clear Obstacles of Women Development and Include the Notion of Gender Equality in Science Policies 20.2 To Encourage Female Professionals to Participate in More Academic Communication and Cooperation 20.3 To Establish More Organizations for Female Professionals 20.4 To Build Women’s New Image in New Era with Effective Publicizing 20.5 To Establish Scientific Research Funds for Women 20.6 To Establish Training Funds for Women 21 Policies for Promoting Women in Enterprise Management 21.1 Joint Efforts of the Society 21.1.1 Including the Articles of Women Participation in Corporate Laws 21.1.2 Gender Awareness in Selecting Excellent Business Managers for Political Posts 21.1.3 More Training for Women Leaders in Business Management 21.1.4 More Publicities on Senior Women Executives in Business 21.2 To Implement More Encouraging Public Policies and Supporting Items for Women Entrepreneurs 21.2.1 To Provide Access to Financing for Women Entrepreneurs 21.2.2 To Promote the Innovation of Women Entrepreneurs 21.3 To Promote the Associations of Women Business Managers 21.3.1 To Give Full Play to the Functions of Various Types of Women Entrepreneur Organizations 21.3.2 To Fulfill the Functions of Uniting Women 21.3.3 To Establish Communication Mechanism Between Women Entrepreneurs and College Students 21.4 To Form “Partnership” Management Philosophy Postscript References