Cardamom: The Genus Elettaria (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

Cardamom otherwise known as Malabar cardamom, true cardamom or small cardamom second only to pepper in its importance during the Renaissance period, is often qualified as the Queen of Spices because of its very pleasant aroma and taste. The Western Ghat forest of the Malabar coast, India, is the center of origin and diversity for cardamom and it might have been nature's design that the King and Queen of spices (black pepper and cardamom) originated in the same forest. This volume contains sixteen chapters, fourteen on cardamom and one each on large cardamom and false cardamoms. All aspects of the cardamom crop have been covered in this volume, and each chapter is written by experts in their respective fields. This volume is visualized as both a textbook and reference work for scientists and students of horticulture, plantation crops, botany and related fields, and will go on to serve as the main reference volume on cardamom for many years to come. Cover......Page 1 Front Matter......Page 2 ISBN 9780415284936......Page 5 Contents......Page 8 Contributors......Page 10 Preface to the series......Page 12 Preface......Page 14 Acknowledgements......Page 16 1 HISTORY......Page 17 2 THE PRESENT SCENARIO......Page 20 3 R & D EFFORTS IN CARDAMOM......Page 24 REFERENCES......Page 25 1 TAXONOMY......Page 27 1.1 Nomenclature......Page 28 1.2.1 Var. Malabar......Page 29 1.2.3 Var. Vazhukka......Page 30 1.3 The Sri Lankan wild cardamom (E. ensal Abheywickrama)......Page 31 2.1 Anatomy......Page 32 2.2 Floral anatomy......Page 37 2.3.1 Anther and male gametophyte......Page 38 2.3.2 Ovule and female gametophyte......Page 40 2.3.4 Fruit and seed......Page 41 2.3.5 Nature of cardamom powder......Page 45 2.4 Cytology......Page 47 3.1 Panicle production, panicle nature and flowering......Page 48 3.2 Flower morphology......Page 50 3.3 Palynology and pollination biology......Page 53 3.4 Fruit set......Page 54 4.2 Growth regulators and fruit setting......Page 55 4.4 Dry matter accumulation and harvest index......Page 56 5.1 Germplasm......Page 58 5.1.1 Genetic variability......Page 61 5.2.1 Selection......Page 63 5.2.2 Selection for biotic stress tolerance......Page 69 5.2.5 Selection in polycross progenies......Page 71 5.2.7 Mutation breeding......Page 72 6.1 Micropropagation......Page 73 6.1.2 Propagation through enhanced axillary branching method......Page 74 6.3 Field testing of TC plants......Page 76 6.4 In vitro conservation......Page 77 6.5.3 Synthetic seeds......Page 78 REFERENCES......Page 79 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 85 2 COMPOSITION......Page 86 3.1 Sites of synthesis......Page 87 3.3 Early biosynthetic steps and acyclic precursors......Page 90 3.4 Industrial production......Page 92 3.5.1 Composition......Page 93 3.6 Evaluation of flavour quality......Page 98 3.7 Cardamom oleoresins and extract......Page 102 3.10 Fixed oil of cardamom seeds......Page 103 REFERENCES......Page 104 2.1 Altitude......Page 107 2.3 Rainfall......Page 108 3.1 Kodagu Malay system......Page 109 3.3 Southern system......Page 110 4.2 Spacing......Page 111 4.3 Methods of planting......Page 112 4.4 Planting season......Page 113 4.6 Planting of suckers......Page 114 4.7 Gap filling......Page 115 4.8 Mulching......Page 116 4.10 Other field operations......Page 117 5.1.1 Seed selection......Page 118 5.1.4 Pre-sowing treatment of seeds......Page 119 5.1.7 Mulching of nursery beds......Page 120 5.2 Secondary nursery......Page 121 5.2.5 Earthing up......Page 122 5.4 Polybag nursery......Page 123 5.4.3 Disadvantages of seed propagation......Page 124 5.5.1 Rapid clonal nursery technique......Page 125 6 SHADE MANAGEMENT......Page 126 6.1 Ideal shade trees......Page 127 6.2 Shade requirements......Page 128 7 WATER REQUIREMENTS AND IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT......Page 130 7.1 Methods of irrigation......Page 131 7.1.1 Sprinkler irrigation......Page 132 7.1.2 Drip irrigation......Page 133 8 CARDAMOM-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS......Page 135 8.2 Nutmeg–clove–cardamom mixed cropping system......Page 136 8.3 Cardamom–arecanut mixed cropping......Page 137 8.6 Cardamom–coffee mixed cropping......Page 138 REFERENCES......Page 140 2 CARDAMOM-GROWING SOILS......Page 145 2.4 Soil phosphorus......Page 146 2.6 Secondary and micronutrients......Page 147 3.2 Secondary nutrients......Page 148 5.1 Tissue composition......Page 149 6.1 Fertilizer scheduling......Page 150 6.2 DRIS norms......Page 153 6.3 Method and time of application......Page 154 7 CONCLUSION......Page 155 REFERENCES......Page 156 2.2 Crop loss......Page 159 2.3 Symptomatology......Page 160 2.4 Transmission......Page 161 2.5.5 Virus–vector relationship......Page 162 2.6.1 Strains of car-MV......Page 163 3.3 Transmission and etiology......Page 164 4.2 Symptomatology and loss......Page 166 5.1 Production and use of virus-free planting material......Page 167 5.2.1 Chemical control......Page 168 5.2.4 Resistant sources......Page 169 5.2.6 Early detection......Page 170 5.3 Developing katte resistant cardamom......Page 171 REFERENCES......Page 172 1.1.1 History and distribution......Page 176 1.1.3 Causal organism......Page 177 1.1.4 Epidemiology......Page 179 1.2 Rhizome rot......Page 180 1.2.4 Biological control......Page 181 1.3.3 Disease management......Page 182 2 MINOR DISEASES......Page 183 2.1.2 Causal organism......Page 184 2.3 Leaf rust......Page 186 2.4.3 Glomerella leaf spot......Page 187 2.5 Sooty mould......Page 188 2.8 Capsule tip rot......Page 189 2.12.1 Causal organism......Page 190 3.2 Seedling rot or clump rot......Page 191 4 CONCLUSION......Page 192 REFERENCES......Page 193 2.1 Cardamom thrips [Sciothrips cardamomi (Ramk.)]......Page 196 2.2 Panicle/capsule/shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen.)......Page 202 2.3 Root grubs (Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby)......Page 205 2.4 Whitefly [Kanakarajiella cardamomi (David and Subr.) David and Sundararaj]......Page 207 2.5.1 Eupterote cardamomi......Page 209 2.5.2 Eupterote undata......Page 210 2.5.4 Eupterote fabia......Page 211 2.5.8 Alphaea biguttata......Page 212 3.1.1 Jamides alecto......Page 213 3.3 Rhizome weevil (Prodioctes haematicus Chev. F.)......Page 214 3.7 Cardamom aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii van der Goot)......Page 215 3.11 Leaf grub (Lema fulvimana Jacoby)......Page 216 CONCLUSION......Page 217 REFERENCES......Page 218 1.1 Time and stage of harvesting......Page 223 2.1 Retention of green colour......Page 224 2.2 Pre-drying operations......Page 225 3 CURING......Page 226 3.2.2 Pipe curing (Kiln drying)......Page 227 3.2.3 Bin dryer......Page 228 3.2.7 Mechanical cardamom dryer......Page 229 3.3.1 Bleaching of freshly harvested capsules......Page 230 4 GRADING......Page 232 4.1 Bleached or half bleached cardamom......Page 233 4.2 Commercial cardamom grades in Sri Lanka......Page 235 6 CONCLUSION......Page 237 REFERENCES......Page 238 2 CARDAMOM SEEDS......Page 239 2.2.1 Grinding......Page 241 2.2.2 Storage of powder......Page 242 3 CARDAMOM OIL......Page 243 3.1 Industrial production of cardamom oil......Page 244 3.2 Improvement in flavour quality of cardamom oil......Page 246 3.3 Storage of cardamom oil......Page 247 4 CARDAMOM OLEORESIN......Page 248 4.1 Solvent extraction......Page 249 4.2 Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of cardamom......Page 252 5 ENCAPSULATED CARDAMOM FLAVOUR......Page 254 6 LARGE CARDAMOM (NEPAL CARDAMOM)......Page 255 7.5 Cardamom plus......Page 256 REFERENCES......Page 257 1.1 Historic development......Page 261 2.1 The data base......Page 262 2.2.1 Area......Page 263 2.2.2 Production......Page 264 2.3 State-wise area, production and productivity......Page 266 2.4 Production constraints......Page 267 3 COST OF CULTIVATION......Page 268 4.1 Price analysis......Page 270 4.2 Price transmission......Page 271 4.3 Cyclical movement in price......Page 273 5 EXPORT PERFORMANCE......Page 274 5.1 Direction of Indian exports......Page 276 5.2 India’s competitive position in the international market......Page 277 6.1 Model identification......Page 278 6.1.2 Model selection......Page 279 6.2.1 Demand......Page 280 6.3 Projections of supply......Page 281 7 CONCLUSION......Page 283 REFERENCES......Page 284 2.1 Carminative action......Page 285 2.3 Anticarcinogenic activity......Page 286 2.4 Anti-inflammatory activity......Page 287 2.5 Antioxidant function......Page 288 2.7.1 Effect on stored product insect pests......Page 289 3 CARDAMOM IN TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE......Page 290 4.1 Cardamom for culinary use......Page 291 4.2 Suitability pattern of cardamom......Page 292 4.3 Spice blends, garam masala......Page 294 4.4 Cardamom oil, oleoresin and soluble cardamom......Page 296 5 CONCLUSION......Page 297 REFERENCES......Page 298 1 PRODUCTION, TRADE AND CONSUMPTION......Page 300 2 INTERNATIONAL PRICE......Page 302 3 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS......Page 303 4.1 Research and development......Page 304 4.2 Demand, production and consumption......Page 305 REFERENCES......Page 306 2 YIELD GAPS......Page 307 3 PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS......Page 309 3.1 Technological factors......Page 310 3.2 Socio-economic factors......Page 311 4 STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS......Page 312 REFERENCES......Page 313 2 HABIT AND HABITAT......Page 315 3 CULTIVARS......Page 317 3.3 Golsey (Dzongu Golsey)......Page 318 3.7 Seremna (Sharmney or Lephrakey)......Page 319 4.1.1 Propagation through seeds......Page 320 4.2.2 Polybag nursery......Page 321 4.4 Micropropagation......Page 322 5.1 Soil condition, preparation of land and shade development......Page 323 5.4 Plant nutrition......Page 325 5.8 Rouging and gap filling......Page 326 7 INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT......Page 327 7.1.1 Nature and extent of damage......Page 328 7.1.3 Management......Page 329 7.2 Hairy caterpillars......Page 330 7.3 Aphids......Page 331 7.7 Leaf folding caterpillar......Page 332 7.8.3 Lacewing bug......Page 333 7.8.10 Green beetle......Page 334 8.1 Chirke......Page 335 8.4 Leaf streak disease......Page 336 9.1 Bhatti system......Page 337 9.3 Flue pipe curing system......Page 338 9.4 Natural convection dryer......Page 339 9.6 Chemical composition......Page 340 10 PROPERTIES AND USES......Page 341 REFERENCES......Page 342 2.1 Sri Lankan wild cardamom Elettaria ensal (Gaertn.) Abheywickrme (E. major Thawaites)......Page 346 2.2 MALAYSIAN AND INDONESIAN ELETTARIA......Page 347 3.1 Korarima cardamom: Aframomum corrorima (Braun). Syn., A. melegueta (Roscoe) Schum. (Meleguetta pepper, grains of paradise or alligator pepper)......Page 348 3.1.1 Composition......Page 349 3.1.2 Uses......Page 350 3.3 A. granum – paradisi K. Schum (black Amomum)......Page 351 4.2 A. dealbatum Roxb.......Page 352 4.6 A. xanthiodis Wall (Tavoy cardamom)......Page 353 4.10 A. acre Valeton......Page 354 REFERENCES......Page 355 1.2.1 Cardamoms with capsules......Page 357 1.3.1 Packing......Page 360 2.3.1 Description......Page 361 Notes......Page 362 Note......Page 363 Method......Page 364 Ingredients......Page 365 Ingredients......Page 366 Ingredients......Page 367 Ingredients......Page 368 Method......Page 369 Ingredients......Page 370 Method......Page 371 Method......Page 372 Ingredients......Page 373 Ingredients......Page 374 Method......Page 375 Method......Page 376 Method......Page 377 Method......Page 378 Ingredients......Page 379 Ingredients (For eggs)......Page 380 Ingredients (For steaks)......Page 381 Ingredients......Page 382 Method......Page 383 This Volume Contains Sixteen Chapters, Fourteen On Cardamom And One Each On Large Cardamom And False Cardamoms. All Aspects Of The Cardamom Crop Have Been Covered, And Each Chapter Is Written By Experts In Their Respective Fields. This Volume Will Serve As Both A Textbook And Reference Work For Scientists And Students Of Horticulture, Plantation Crops, Botany And Related Fields.--jacket. 1. Introduction / P.n. Ravindran -- 2. Botany, Crop Improvement And Biotechnology Of Cardamom / K.j. Madhusoodanan, K. Pradip Kumar And P.n. Ravindran -- 3. Chemistry Of Cardamom / T. John Zachariah -- 4. Agronomy And Management Of Cardamom / V.s. Korikanthimath -- 5. Nutrition Of Cardamom / V. Krishnakumar And S.n. Potty -- 6. Viral Diseases Of Cardamom / M.n. Venugopal -- 7. Diseases Of Cardamom (fungal, Bacterial And Nematode Diseases) / Joseph Thomas And R. Suseela Bhai -- 8. Insect Pests Of Cardamom / B. Gopakumar And S.s. Chandrasekar -- 9. Harvesting And Processing Of Cardamom / T. John Zachariah And V.s. Korikanthimath -- 10. Industrial Processing And Products Of Cardamom / N. Krishnamurthy And S.r. Sampathu. Edited By P.n. Ravindran And K.j. Madhusoodanan. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.