Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700-950) (Oxford Studies in Byzantium)

Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700-950) offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic Caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, the volume focuses on the period between 700 and 950 during which the Islamic world asserted its identity and authority. Whilst the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies during this time was not unprecedented when one considers the early Imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft which marked a distinct break from the past. It explores the mechanisms effecting these changes, from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, to the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial t=a%gir from the ninth century. Combining detailed analysis of a large corpus of literary sources in Arabic with presentation of new physical and epigraphic evidence, and utilizing an innovative approach which is both comparative and global, the discussion lucidly locates the Middle East within the contemporary Eurasian context and draws instructive parallels between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South-East Asia, and China. Cover Series page Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950) Copyright Dedication Acknowledgements Contents List of Illustrations List of Abbreviations Notes on Transcription and Dates Maps Introduction Chapter 1: The Historical Context 1. Conquests 2. Ideology 3. Agriculture 4. Trade Part I: Patronage and Power Chapter 2: A Stamp of Authority 1. A Caliphal Officium 2. Sowing and Reaping 3. Exercise and Assertion of Power Chapter 3: New Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning 1. Growth of Communal Working Areas in the Levant (700–50) 2. Process of Exclusion of Economic Clusters Under Early ‘Abbāsid Rule 3. Rabaḍ in Central Asia 4. Isolation of Domesticity 4.1 Productive and public use to domestic shelter 4.2 An emphasis on intimacy Conclusion to Part I Part II: Revisiting the Legacies Chapter 4: Artisans to Producers 1. The Progression of Change 1.1 Persistence of Roman practices after 700 1.2 Downfall of ‘home’ production after 800 2. Approaches to Key Industries 2.1 Pottery 2.2 Glassmaking 2.3 Textile industry 3. Food Processing Industries 3.1 Oil and wine industries 3.2 Watermills Chapter 5: Reshaping Marketplaces 1. From the ergastērion to the Sūq 2. Covered MarketPlaces 2.1 Funduq 2.2 Dār, ẖān, and qaysāriyya Conclusion to Part II Part III: Institutional and Religious Generators Chapter 6: Money Supply and Currency 1. Out with the Old . . . 2. Coinage in Common 3. Balancing Supply and Demand Chapter 7: Islamifying the Economy 1. Commercial Rituals and Islamic Worship 2. Mosques and Measures 3. The Muḥtasib Conclusion to Part III Part IV: Economy and Social Changes Chapter 8: The Evolution of Labour Patterns 1. Conditions of Labour 1.1 Servile labour 1.2 Free labour 1.3 Wage labour 2. Changing Patterns of Institutional Identity 3. Status and Composition of the Labour Force 3.1 Disdained and tolerated professions 3.2 Changing division of labour 3.3 Female artisans Chapter 9: Twilight of the Clerical and Landowning Elite, Rise of Tugˇgˇār 1. Retailers and Traders Before 800 2. Ascendance of Tugˇgˇār from 800 2.1 Financial 2.2 Identity 2.3 Cultural 3. Tugˇgˇār’s Political and Religious Careers 4. Tugˇgˇār and Authority 4.1 The defence of trading interests 4.2 Tugˇgˇār and economic expansion Conclusion to Part IV Conclusion Appendix References Index Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700-950)' offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic Caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. 0Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, the volume focuses on the period between 700 and 950 during which the Islamic world asserted its identity and authority. Whilst the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies during this time was not unprecedented when one considers the early Imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft which marked a distinct break from the past. It explores the mechanisms effecting these changes, from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, to the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial tagir from the ninth century. 0Combining detailed analysis of a large corpus of literary sources in Arabic with presentation of new physical and epigraphic evidence, and utilizing an innovative approach which is both comparative and global, the discussion lucidly locates the Middle East within the contemporary Eurasian context and draws instructive parallels between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South-East Asia, and China Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700-950) offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic Caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, the volume focuses on the period between 700 and 950 during which the Islamic world asserted its identity and authority. Whilst the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies during this time was not unprecedented when one considers the early Imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft which marked a distinct break from the past. It explores the mechanisms effecting these changes, from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, to the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial tā%gir from the ninth century. Combining detailed analysis of a large corpus of literary sources in Arabic with presentation of new physical and epigraphic evidence, and utilizing an innovative approach which is both comparative and global, the discussion lucidly locates the Middle East within the contemporary Eurasian context and draws instructive parallels between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South-East Asia, and China. Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700-950) offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic Caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, the volume focuses on the period between 700 and 950 during which the Islamic world asserted its identity and authority. Whilst the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies during this time was not unprecedented when one considers the early Imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft which marked a distinct break from the past. It explores the mechanisms effecting these changes, from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, to the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial tāğir from the ninth century. Combining detailed analysis of a large corpus of literary sources in Arabic with presentation of new physical and epigraphic evidence, and utilizing an innovative approach which is both comparative and global, the discussion lucidly locates the Middle East within the contemporary Eurasian context and draws instructive parallels between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South-East Asia, and China. Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950) offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, Caliphs and Merchants focuses on the period of assertion of the Islamic world’s identity and authority. While the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies in 700–950 was not unprecedented when one considers the early imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft, which marked a break from the past. This book explores the mechanisms through which these changes resulted from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, alongside the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial tāǧir from the ninth century, as well as how they served the Arab-Muslim elite to secure their power and legitimacy. This book combines a wide corpus of literary sources in Arabic with original physical and epigraphic evidence. The approach is both comparative and global. The Middle East is examined in a Eurasian context, parallels being drawn between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South East Asia, and China. The foundation of the Muslim world from 700 to 950 was a seminal period in history, when the Near East enjoyed an age of political unity, prosperity, and cultural dominance. This volume offers new insights into the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic Caliphate, drawing instructive parallels within the contemporary Eurasian context.