Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century (Oxford Studies in Byzantium)

This book looks at the relations between Byzantium and its eastern neighbours in the thirteenth century. The main conclusion is that the Nicaean Empire (1204-61) was much stronger and much more the heir of the twelfth-century Empire than has generally been appreciated. Furthermore, it was recognized as such by its eastern neighbours throughout the period. The Nicaean Empire gained dominant influence over the Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm in the 1250s. The appearance of the Mongols added a complicating factor, which the Byzantines at first managed effectively. However, in the last quarter of the century the continued decline of Seljuk power, the continuing migration of Turks from the east, and what effectively amounted to a lack of Mongol interest in western Anatolia allowed the creation of powerful Turkish nomadic confederations in the frontier regions facing Byzantium. By 1304 the nomadic Turks had broken Byzantium’s eastern defences. The Empire lost its Asian territories forever; and Constantinople became the most eastern outpost of Byzantium. The thirteenth century is a period of consistent success for Byzantine diplomacy towards the Seljuks and the Mongols. However, successful relations with the great powers of the age were not ultimately a key factor for the successful defence of Byzantine Asia Minor. At the beginning of the thirteenth century Byzantium was still one of the most influential states in the eastern Mediterranean, possessing two-thirds of the Balkans and almost half of Asia Minor. After the capture of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, the most prominent and successful of the Greek rump states was the Empire of Nicaea, which managed to re-capture the city in 1261 and restore Byzantium. The Nicaean Empire, like Byzantium of the Komnenoi and Angeloi of the twelfth century, went on to gain dominant influence over the Seljukid Sultanate of Rum in the 1250s. However, the decline of the Seljuk power, the continuing migration of Turks from the east, and what effectively amounted to a lack of Mongol interest in western Anatolia, allowed the creation of powerful Turkish nomadic confederations in the frontier regions facing Byzantium. By 1304, the nomadic Turks had broken Byzantium's eastern defences; the Empire lost its Asian territories forever, and Constantinople became the most eastern outpost of Byzantium. At the beginning of the fourteenth century the Empire was a tiny, second-ranking Balkan state, whose lands were often disputed between the Bulgarians, the Serbs, and the Franks. Using Greek, Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman sources, Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century presents a new interpretation of the Nicaean Empire and highlights the evidence for its wealth and power. It explains the importance of the relations between the Byzantines and the Seljuks and the Mongols, revealing how the Byzantines adapted to the new and complex situation that emerged in the second half of the thirteenth century. Finally, it turns to the Empire's Anatolian frontiers and the emergence of the Turkish confederations, the biggest challenge that the Byzantines faced in the thirteenth century. At The Beginning Of The Thirteenth Century Byzantium Was Still One Of The Most Influential States In The Eastern Mediterranean, Possessing Two-thirds Of The Balkans And Almost Half Of Asia Minor. After The Capture Of Constantinople In 1204 During The Fourth Crusade, The Most Prominent And Successful Of The Greek Rump States Was The Empire Of Nicaea, Which Managed To Re-capture The City In 1261 And Restore Byzantium. The Nicaean Empire, Like Byzantium Of The Komnenoi And Angeloi Of The Twelfth Century, Went On To Gain Dominant Influence Over The Seljukid Sultanate Of Rum In The 1250s. However, The Decline Of The Seljuk Power, The Continuing Migration Of Turks From The East, And What Effectively Amounted To A Lack Of Mongol Interest In Western Anatolia, Allowed The Creation Of Powerful Turkish Nomadic Confederations In The Frontier Regions Facing Byzantium. By 1304, The Nomadic Turks Had Broken Byzantium's Eastern Defences; The Empire Lost Its Asian Territories Forever, And Constantinople Became The Most Eastern Outpost Of Byzantium. At The Beginning Of The Fourteenth Century The Empire Was A Tiny, Second-ranking Balkan State, Whose Lands Were Often Disputed Between The Bulgarians, The Serbs, And The Franks.-- Introduction: The Thirteenth Century -- The Sources -- The Nicaean Paradox -- The Sultanate Of Rūm: Preliminary Remarks -- Nicaean-seljuk Relations -- The Mongols -- The Age Of Revolts: The Loss Of Byzantine Asia Minor -- The Aftermath: Asia Minor After 1303 -- Conclusion: Byzantium In The Thirteenth Century: Diplomatic Success And Military Failure. Dimitri Korobeĭnikov. Ncludes Bibliographical References (pages 304-349) And Indexes. Cover......Page 1 Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Dedication......Page 6 Preface......Page 8 Acknowledgements......Page 10 Contents......Page 12 List of Illustrations......Page 14 Abbreviations......Page 16 Note on Transliterations......Page 20 Map of Asia Minor c.1265......Page 22 Introduction: The Thirteenth Century......Page 24 Chapter 1: The Sources......Page 30 BYZANTINE SOURCES......Page 31 ORIENTAL SOURCES......Page 43 2. Didacticism......Page 49 3. Incompleteness......Page 50 4. Rhetoric......Page 51 ARABIC SOURCES......Page 58 OTTOMAN SOURCES......Page 61 Chapter 2: The Nicaean Paradox......Page 63 Chapter 3: The Sultanate of Rūm: Preliminary Remarks......Page 104 Chapter 4: Nicaean–Seljuk Relations......Page 134 Chapter 5: The Mongols......Page 193 Chapter 6: The Age of Revolts: The Loss of Byzantine Asia Minor......Page 240 Chapter 7: The Aftermath: Asia Minor after 1303......Page 305 Conclusion: Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century: Diplomatic Success and Military Failure......Page 312 Glossary......Page 321 Bibliography......Page 327 Index of Names......Page 374 Index of Places......Page 388 Technical Index......Page 394 Cover 1 Byzantium and the Turks in the Thirteenth Century 4 Copyright 5 Dedication 6 Preface 8 Acknowledgements 10 Contents 12 List of Illustrations 14 Abbreviations 16 Note on Transliterations 20 Map of Asia Minor c.1265 22 Introduction: The Thirteenth Century 24 Chapter 1: The Sources 30 BYZANTINE SOURCES 31 ORIENTAL SOURCES 43 1. Chronology 49 2. Didacticism 49 3. Incompleteness 50 4. Rhetoric 51 ARABIC SOURCES 58 OTTOMAN SOURCES 61 Chapter 2: The Nicaean Paradox 63 Chapter 3: The Sultanate of R奴m: Preliminary Remarks 104 Chapter 4: Nicaean鈥揝eljuk Relations 134 Chapter 5: The Mongols 193 Chapter 6: The Age of Revolts: The Loss of Byzantine Asia Minor 240 Chapter 7: The Aftermath: Asia Minor after 1303 305 Conclusion: Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century: Diplomatic Success and Military Failure 312 Glossary 321 Bibliography 327 Index of Names 374 Index of Places 388 Technical Index 394 Using Greek, Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman sources, this volume looks at the relations between Byzantium and its eastern neighbours in the thirteenth century, and presents a new interpretation of the Nicaean Empire and highlights the evidence for its wealth and power.