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Moran’s Principles Of Engineering Thermodynamics, Si Version, Continues To Offer A Comprehensive And Rigorous Treatment Of Classical Thermodynamics, While Retaining An Engineering Perspective. With Concise, Applications-oriented Discussion Of Topics And Self-test Problems, This Book Encourages Students To Monitor Their Own Learning. This Classic Text Provides A Solid Foundation For Subsequent Studies In Fields Such As Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer And Statistical Thermodynamics, And Prepares Students To Effectively Apply Thermodynamics In The Practice Of Engineering. This Edition Is Revised With Additional Examples And End-of-chapter Problems To Increase Student Comprehension. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright 4 Preface 5 Acknowledgments 7 Contents 8 1 Getting Started 15 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 16 1.2 Defining Systems 16 1.2.1 Closed Systems 18 1.2.2 Control Volumes 18 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 19 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 20 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 20 1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 21 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 21 1.3.4 Equilibrium 22 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 22 1.4.1 SI Units 23 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 24 1.5 Specific Volume 25 1.6 Pressure 26 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 26 1.6.2 Buoyancy 28 1.6.3 Pressure Units 28 1.7 Temperature 29 1.7.1 Thermometers 30 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 31 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 31 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 33 1.8.1 Design 33 1.8.2 Analysis 33 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 34 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 36 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 37 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 38 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 38 2.1.2 Potential Energy 39 2.1.3 Units for Energy 40 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 41 2.1.5 Closing Comment 41 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 41 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 42 2.2.2 Power 43 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 44 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 45 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 45 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 48 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 49 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 50 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 50 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 51 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 52 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 53 2.4.3 Closing Comments 54 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 55 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 57 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems 58 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation 61 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 63 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 64 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 65 2.6.2 Power Cycles 66 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 66 2.7 Energy Storage 67 2.7.1 Overview 68 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 68 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 69 3 Evaluating Properties 71 3.1 Getting Started 72 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 72 3.1.2 Fixing the State 72 3.2 p–υ–T Relation 73 3.2.1 p–υ–T Surface 74 3.2.2 Projections of the p–υ–T Surface 75 3.3 Studying Phase Change 77 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 79 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume, and Temperature 80 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 80 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 82 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy 86 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 86 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 86 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 88 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software 88 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software 90 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 91 3.8.2 Using Software 93 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp 94 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 96 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 96 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 97 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 99 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R- 99 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 99 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 100 3.11.4 Equations of State 103 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 104 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 104 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 104 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 106 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 106 3.13.1 Δu, Δh, cυ , and cp Relations 106 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 107 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and Software 109 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 109 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 111 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 112 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 114 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 116 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 119 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 120 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 120 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 121 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 121 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 122 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 123 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 123 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 123 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 123 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 124 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 126 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 126 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 127 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 128 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 128 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 129 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 129 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 130 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 131 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 132 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 132 4.7 Turbines 133 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 134 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 135 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 136 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 136 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 136 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 139 4.9 Heat Exchangers 140 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 141 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 142 4.10 Throttling Devices 144 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 144 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 145 4.11 System Integration 146 4.12 Transient Analysis 149 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 149 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 149 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 150 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 156 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 159 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 160 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 160 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 161 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 162 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 163 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 163 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 163 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 165 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 165 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 165 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 166 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 167 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 169 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 170 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 171 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 172 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 173 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 173 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 174 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 175 5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 175 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 176 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 177 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 177 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 178 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 179 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 180 5.9.1 Power Cycles 181 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 182 5.10 Carnot Cycle 185 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 185 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 186 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 187 5.11 Clausius Inequality 187 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 189 6 Using Entropy 191 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 192 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 192 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 193 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 193 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 193 6.2.1 Vapor Data 194 6.2.2 Saturation Data 194 6.2.3 Liquid Data 194 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 195 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 195 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 196 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 198 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 198 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 199 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 200 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 201 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 201 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 202 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 202 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 203 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 204 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 205 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 206 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 206 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 209 6.8 Directionality of Processes 210 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 210 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 212 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 214 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 215 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 216 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 216 6.11 Isentropic Processes 221 6.11.1 General Considerations 221 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 222 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 224 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 226 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 226 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 229 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies 230 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 232 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 232 6.13.2 Work 233 6.13.3 Work in Polytropic Processes 234 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 236 7 Exergy Analysis 239 7.1 Introducing Exergy 240 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 241 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 241 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 242 7.3 Exergy of a System 242 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 244 7.3.2 Specific Exergy 244 7.3.3 Exergy Change 246 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 247 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 247 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 250 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 251 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 253 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 254 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 256 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State 257 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 260 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Efficiency 263 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 263 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Components 265 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 267 7.7 Thermoeconomics 267 7.7.1 Costing 268 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 268 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 270 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 274 8 Vapor Power Systems 275 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 280 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 282 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 283 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 285 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle 288 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 290 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 293 8.4 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 298 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 298 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 301 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 303 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 306 8.5.1 Working Fluids 306 8.5.2 Cogeneration 307 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 309 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 310 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 315 9 Gas Power Systems 317 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 318 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 320 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 325 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 328 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 331 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 332 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 332 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 333 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses 338 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 340 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 343 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 343 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 345 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 349 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 351 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 353 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 353 9.9.2 Cogeneration 358 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants 358 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 360 9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 364 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Flow 364 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number 365 9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 367 9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers 367 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 367 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 370 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 372 9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal Gases with Constant Specific Heats 373 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 373 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 376 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 380 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems 383 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 384 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 384 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 385 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 386 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 386 10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems 387 10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Systems 389 10.2.4 The p–h Diagram 392 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 393 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 396 10.4.1 Cold Storage 396 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 397 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling 398 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 399 10.6 Heat Pump Systems 400 10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 401 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps 401 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 404 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 404 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 408 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide 409 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 410 11 Thermodynamic Relations 413 11.1 Using Equations of State 414 11.1.1 Getting Started 414 11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 415 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 418 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 419 11.3 Developing Property Relations 422 11.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials 422 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Differentials 423 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 427 11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy 428 11.4.1 Considering Phase Change 428 11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions 431 11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 436 11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility 436 11.5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats 437 11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coefficient 440 11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 442 11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–υ–T and Specific Heat Data 442 11.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function 444 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 446 11.8 p–υ–T Relations for Gas Mixtures 452 11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems 456 11.9.1 Partial Molal Properties 457 11.9.2 Chemical Potential 459 11.9.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions for Multicomponent Systems 460 11.9.4 Fugacity 462 11.9.5 Ideal Solution 465 11.9.6 Chemical Potential for Ideal Solutions 466 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 467 12 Ideal Gas Mixture and Psychrometric Applications 471 12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 472 12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures 475 12.3 Evaluating U, H, S, and Specific Heats 477 12.3.1 Evaluating U and H 477 12.3.2 Evaluating cυ and cp 477 12.3.3 Evaluating S 478 12.3.4 Working on a Mass Basis 478 12.4 Analyzing Systems Involving Mixtures 479 12.4.1 Mixture Processes at Constant Composition 479 12.4.2 Mixing of Ideal Gases 484 12.5 Introducing Psychrometric Principles 488 12.5.1 Moist Air 488 12.5.2 Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity, Mixture Enthalpy, and Mixture Entropy 489 12.5.3 Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid Water 491 12.5.4 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature 492 12.5.5 Evaluating Humidity Ratio Using the Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature 496 12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 497 12.7 Psychrometric Charts 498 12.8 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes 500 12.8.1 Applying Mass and Energy Balances to Air-Conditioning Systems 500 12.8.2 Conditioning Moist Air at Constant Composition 502 12.8.3 Dehumidification 504 12.8.4 Humidification 507 12.8.5 Evaporative Cooling 508 12.8.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 510 12.9 Cooling Towers 513 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 515 13 Reacting Mixtures and Combustion 517 13.1 Introducing Combustion 518 13.1.1 Fuels 519 13.1.2 Modeling Combustion Air 519 13.1.3 Determining Products of Combustion 522 13.1.4 Energy and Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 525 13.2 Conservation of Energy—Reacting Systems 525 13.2.1 Evaluating Enthalpy for Reacting Systems 525 13.2.2 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems 528 13.2.3 Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values 534 13.3 Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature 537 13.3.1 Using Table Data 537 13.3.2 Using Computer Software 537 13.3.3 Closing Comments 539 13.4 Fuel Cells 540 13.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 541 13.4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 543 13.5 Absolute Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 544 13.5.1 Evaluating Entropy for Reacting Systems 544 13.5.2 Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 545 13.5.3 Evaluating Gibbs Function for Reacting Systems 548 13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy 550 13.6.1 Working Equations for Chemical Exergy 552 13.6.2 Evaluating Chemical Exergy for Several Cases 552 13.6.3 Closing Comments 554 13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy 554 13.7.1 Standard Chemical Exergy of a Hydrocarbon: CaHb 555 13.7.2 Standard Chemical Exergy of Other Substances 558 13.8 Applying Total Exergy 559 13.8.1 Calculating Total Exergy 559 13.8.2 Calculating Exergetic Efficiencies of Reacting Systems 563 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 566 14 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium 569 14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria 570 14.1.1 Chemical Potential and Equilibrium 571 14.1.2 Evaluating Chemical Potentials 573 14.2 Equation of Reaction Equilibrium 574 14.2.1 Introductory Case 574 14.2.2 General Case 575 14.3 Calculating Equilibrium Compositions 576 14.3.1 Equilibrium Constant for Ideal Gas Mixtures 576 14.3.2 Illustrations of the Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions for Reacting Ideal Gas Mixtures 579 14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant for Mixtures and Solutions 583 14.4 Further Examples of the Use of the Equilibrium Constant 584 14.4.1 Determining Equilibrium Flame Temperature 584 14.4.2 Van’t Hoff Equation 587 14.4.3 Ionization 588 14.4.4 Simultaneous Reactions 589 14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure Substance 592 14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase Systems 593 14.6.1 Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium 594 14.6.2 Gibbs Phase Rule 596 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 597 Appendix Tables, Figures, and Charts 599 Index to Tables in SI Units 599 Index to Tables in English Units 647 Index to Figures and Charts 695 Exercises and Problems 711 Index 867 EULA 875 Cover......Page 1 Title Page......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 Preface......Page 5 Acknowledgments......Page 7 Contents......Page 8 1 Getting Started......Page 15 1.2 Defining Systems......Page 16 1.2.2 Control Volumes......Page 18 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary......Page 19 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics......Page 20 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties......Page 21 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force......Page 22 1.4.1 SI Units......Page 23 1.4.2 English Engineering Units......Page 24 1.5 Specific Volume......Page 25 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement......Page 26 1.6.3 Pressure Units......Page 28 1.7 Temperature......Page 29 1.7.1 Thermometers......Page 30 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales......Page 31 1.8.2 Analysis......Page 33 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems......Page 34 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 36 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 37 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy......Page 38 2.1.2 Potential Energy......Page 39 2.1.3 Units for Energy......Page 40 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work......Page 41 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation......Page 42 2.2.2 Power......Page 43 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work......Page 44 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes......Page 45 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work......Page 48 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes......Page 49 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy......Page 50 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat......Page 51 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate......Page 52 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes......Page 53 2.4.3 Closing Comments......Page 54 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems......Page 55 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance......Page 57 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems......Page 58 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation......Page 61 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation......Page 63 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles......Page 64 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance......Page 65 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles......Page 66 2.7 Energy Storage......Page 67 2.7.2 Storage Technologies......Page 68 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 69 3 Evaluating Properties......Page 71 3.1.2 Fixing the State......Page 72 3.2 p–υ–T Relation......Page 73 3.2.1 p–υ–T Surface......Page 74 3.2.2 Projections of the p–υ–T Surface......Page 75 3.3 Studying Phase Change......Page 77 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties......Page 79 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables......Page 80 3.5.2 Saturation Tables......Page 82 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data......Page 86 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software......Page 88 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software......Page 90 3.8.1 Using Property Tables......Page 91 3.8.2 Using Software......Page 93 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp......Page 94 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data......Page 96 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model......Page 97 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z......Page 99 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart......Page 100 3.11.4 Equations of State......Page 103 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model......Page 104 3.13.1 Δu, Δh, cυ , and cp Relations......Page 106 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions......Page 107 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables......Page 109 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats......Page 111 3.14.3 Using Computer Software......Page 112 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations......Page 114 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 116 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy......Page 119 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance......Page 120 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance......Page 121 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance......Page 122 4.3.1 Steady-State Application......Page 123 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application......Page 124 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume......Page 126 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume......Page 127 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance......Page 128 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances......Page 129 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 130 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers......Page 131 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle......Page 132 4.7 Turbines......Page 133 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations......Page 134 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine......Page 135 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System......Page 136 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage......Page 139 4.9 Heat Exchangers......Page 140 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations......Page 141 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling......Page 142 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations......Page 144 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality......Page 145 4.11 System Integration......Page 146 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis......Page 149 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications......Page 150 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 156 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 159 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law......Page 160 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work......Page 161 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law......Page 162 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law......Page 163 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes......Page 165 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes......Page 166 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility......Page 167 5.3.3 Reversible Processes......Page 169 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes......Page 170 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement......Page 171 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles......Page 172 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency......Page 173 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles......Page 174 5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance......Page 175 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles......Page 176 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale......Page 177 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer......Page 178 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale......Page 179 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs......Page 180 5.9.1 Power Cycles......Page 181 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles......Page 182 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle......Page 185 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles......Page 186 5.11 Clausius Inequality......Page 187 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 189 6 Using Entropy......Page 191 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change......Page 192 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data......Page 193 6.2.3 Liquid Data......Page 194 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data......Page 195 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations......Page 196 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas......Page 198 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables......Page 199 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats......Page 200 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems......Page 201 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application......Page 202 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water......Page 203 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems......Page 204 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance......Page 205 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance......Page 206 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance......Page 209 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle......Page 210 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy......Page 212 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes......Page 214 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 215 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 216 6.11.1 General Considerations......Page 221 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model......Page 222 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air......Page 224 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency......Page 226 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency......Page 229 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies......Page 230 6.13.1 Heat Transfer......Page 232 6.13.2 Work......Page 233 6.13.3 Work in Polytropic Processes......Page 234 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 236 7 Exergy Analysis......Page 239 7.1 Introducing Exergy......Page 240 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State......Page 241 7.3 Exergy of a System......Page 242 7.3.2 Specific Exergy......Page 244 7.3.3 Exergy Change......Page 246 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance......Page 247 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance......Page 250 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss......Page 251 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting......Page 253 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 254 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 256 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 257 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State......Page 260 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source......Page 263 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Components......Page 265 7.7 Thermoeconomics......Page 267 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design......Page 268 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System......Page 270 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 274 8 Vapor Power Systems......Page 275 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants......Page 280 8.2 The Rankine Cycle......Page 282 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle......Page 283 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle......Page 285 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle......Page 288 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses......Page 290 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical......Page 293 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters......Page 298 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters......Page 301 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters......Page 303 8.5.1 Working Fluids......Page 306 8.5.2 Cogeneration......Page 307 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage......Page 309 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant......Page 310 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 315 9 Gas Power Systems......Page 317 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology......Page 318 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle......Page 320 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle......Page 325 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle......Page 328 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants......Page 331 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers......Page 332 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle......Page 333 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses......Page 338 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines......Page 340 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat......Page 343 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling......Page 345 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling......Page 349 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles......Page 351 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle......Page 353 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants......Page 358 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion......Page 360 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Flow......Page 364 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number......Page 365 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows......Page 367 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate......Page 370 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock......Page 372 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions......Page 373 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions......Page 376 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 380 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems......Page 383 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle......Page 384 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle......Page 385 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers......Page 386 10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems......Page 387 10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Systems......Page 389 10.2.4 The p–h Diagram......Page 392 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants......Page 393 10.4.1 Cold Storage......Page 396 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles......Page 397 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling......Page 398 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration......Page 399 10.6 Heat Pump Systems......Page 400 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps......Page 401 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle......Page 404 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications......Page 408 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide......Page 409 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 410 11 Thermodynamic Relations......Page 413 11.1.1 Getting Started......Page 414 11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State......Page 415 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State......Page 418 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations......Page 419 11.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials......Page 422 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Differentials......Page 423 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions......Page 427 11.4.1 Considering Phase Change......Page 428 11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions......Page 431 11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility......Page 436 11.5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats......Page 437 11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coefficient......Page 440 11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–υ–T and Specific Heat Data......Page 442 11.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function......Page 444 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy......Page 446 11.8 p–υ–T Relations for Gas Mixtures......Page 452 11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems......Page 456 11.9.1 Partial Molal Properties......Page 457 11.9.2 Chemical Potential......Page 459 11.9.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions for Multicomponent Systems......Page 460 11.9.4 Fugacity......Page 462 11.9.5 Ideal Solution......Page 465 11.9.6 Chemical Potential for Ideal Solutions......Page 466 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 467 12 Ideal Gas Mixture and Psychrometric Applications......Page 471 12.1 Describing Mixture Composition......Page 472 12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 475 12.3.2 Evaluating cυ and cp......Page 477 12.3.4 Working on a Mass Basis......Page 478 12.4.1 Mixture Processes at Constant Composition......Page 479 12.4.2 Mixing of Ideal Gases......Page 484 12.5.1 Moist Air......Page 488 12.5.2 Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity, Mixture Enthalpy, and Mixture Entropy......Page 489 12.5.3 Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid Water......Page 491 12.5.4 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature......Page 492 12.5.5 Evaluating Humidity Ratio Using the Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature......Page 496 12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures......Page 497 12.7 Psychrometric Charts......Page 498 12.8.1 Applying Mass and Energy Balances to Air-Conditioning Systems......Page 500 12.8.2 Conditioning Moist Air at Constant Composition......Page 502 12.8.3 Dehumidification......Page 504 12.8.4 Humidification......Page 507 12.8.5 Evaporative Cooling......Page 508 12.8.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams......Page 510 12.9 Cooling Towers......Page 513 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 515 13 Reacting Mixtures and Combustion......Page 517 13.1 Introducing Combustion......Page 518 13.1.2 Modeling Combustion Air......Page 519 13.1.3 Determining Products of Combustion......Page 522 13.2.1 Evaluating Enthalpy for Reacting Systems......Page 525 13.2.2 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems......Page 528 13.2.3 Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values......Page 534 13.3.2 Using Computer Software......Page 537 13.3.3 Closing Comments......Page 539 13.4 Fuel Cells......Page 540 13.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell......Page 541 13.4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell......Page 543 13.5.1 Evaluating Entropy for Reacting Systems......Page 544 13.5.2 Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems......Page 545 13.5.3 Evaluating Gibbs Function for Reacting Systems......Page 548 13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy......Page 550 13.6.2 Evaluating Chemical Exergy for Several Cases......Page 552 13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy......Page 554 13.7.1 Standard Chemical Exergy of a Hydrocarbon: CaHb......Page 555 13.7.2 Standard Chemical Exergy of Other Substances......Page 558 13.8.1 Calculating Total Exergy......Page 559 13.8.2 Calculating Exergetic Efficiencies of Reacting Systems......Page 563 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 566 14 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium......Page 569 14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria......Page 570 14.1.1 Chemical Potential and Equilibrium......Page 571 14.1.2 Evaluating Chemical Potentials......Page 573 14.2.1 Introductory Case......Page 574 14.2.2 General Case......Page 575 14.3.1 Equilibrium Constant for Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 576 14.3.2 Illustrations of the Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions for Reacting Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 579 14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant for Mixtures and Solutions......Page 583 14.4.1 Determining Equilibrium Flame Temperature......Page 584 14.4.2 Van’t Hoff Equation......Page 587 14.4.3 Ionization......Page 588 14.4.4 Simultaneous Reactions......Page 589 14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure Substance......Page 592 14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase Systems......Page 593 14.6.1 Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium......Page 594 14.6.2 Gibbs Phase Rule......Page 596 Chapter Summary and Study Guide......Page 597 Index to Tables in SI Units......Page 599 Index to Tables in English Units......Page 647 Index to Figures and Charts......Page 695 Exercises and Problems......Page 711 Index......Page 867 EULA......Page 875