Blue-Green Infrastructure Across Asian Countries : Improving Urban Resilience and Sustainability

This edited book discusses Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) from conception to implementation in building resilience and urban sustainability. The book emphasizes on infrastructures, institutions, and perceptions as three main pillars of implementing and managing successful BGI, with a special focus on Asia. The book highlights concepts as well as field-based experiences from different parts of Asia by experts, with a special focus on advances and opportunities in advancing BGI, challenges and constraints, followed by case studies on BGI mainstreaming. It addresses sustainable water management, multiscale environmental design, environmental risk assessment, and finally understanding policy implications and concerns for BGI mainstreaming in growing urban sprawls of the region. There has been growing global momentum and recognition of Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) as a multifunctional Nature-based Solution (NbS) with multiple co-benefits. There is strong evidence from many urban centres of Europe, USA, China, and South Africa demonstrating that mainstreaming BGI can help in addressing growing vulnerability of urban areas by ensuring safety, resilience, and sustainability for urban residents in the warming world. This book is a timely contribution for researchers, students, scholars, urban planners, consultants, and policy makers in the fields of environment, resilience, urban planning, climate adaptation, and sustainability science. Foreword Acknowledgements Contents About the Editors Abbreviations 1: Blue-Green Infrastructure for Addressing Urban Resilience and Sustainability in the Warming World 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure-Examples 1.1.2 Global Recognition and Acceptance of UBGI 1.1.3 Opportunities and Challenges 1.1.4 Progress and Developments in UBGI on the Science Front 1.1.4.1 Urban Green Spaces for Increasing Resilience 1.1.4.2 UBGI to Manage Urban Heat Islands 1.1.4.3 UBGI to Manage Urban Flood Risks 1.1.5 Structure of the Book References Part I: Opportunities and Advances 2: Regional Trends in Social-Ecological-Technological (SET) Approaches to Sustainable Urban Planning: Focus on Asia 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Blue-Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions: Focus on the Asia-Pacific Region 2.2.1 Singapore 2.2.2 India 2.2.3 Sri Lanka 2.2.4 China 2.2.5 Nepal 2.2.6 Fiji 2.2.7 Thailand 2.2.8 Philippines 2.3 Sustainable Urban Natural Resources Management (SUNRM) 2.4 Discussion Points 2.5 Concluding Notes Annexure 1 Annexure 2 Annexure 3 References 3: A Risk Assessment Approach to Urban Resilience 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Nature-Based Solutions 3.3 Societal Challenges in the Urban Environment 3.3.1 Extreme Weather Events 3.4 Options Appraisal 3.4.1 City Scale 3.4.2 The Neighbourhood Approach 3.5 Ensuring Sustainability 3.6 Taking a Strategic Approach to Promote Blue-Green Infrastructure References 4: Promoting Blue-Green Infrastructure in Urban Spaces Through Citizen Science Initiatives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Cities, Climate Change and Sustainable Development 4.3 Citizen Science and Blue-Green Infrastructure 4.3.1 Citizen Science and Green Infrastructure 4.3.2 Citizen Science and Blue Infrastructure 4.4 Blue-Green Infrastructure for Sustainable Development 4.5 Citizen Science for Promoting Blue-Green Infrastructure in Urban Spaces 4.5.1 Project Demand 4.5.2 Project Design 4.5.3 Project Implementation and Delivery 4.5.4 Project Monitoring and Maintenance 4.6 Widening the Niche for Blue-Green Infrastructure in Urban Spaces References 5: Is Ensuring the Sustainable Implementation of BGI Possible? System Thinking of Urban Rivers as Social-Ecological Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Application of BGI and Its Barriers to Promote Urban Sustainability 5.3 Rationale and System Thinking-Oriented Methods 5.3.1 Usefulness of System Thinking 5.3.2 Case Selection for Urban River Mental Modeling 5.3.3 Steps to Develop and Evaluate Urban River Mental Model 5.3.3.1 Step 1: Operationalizing the Data Collection 5.3.3.2 Step 2: Drawing a Mental Map Prototype for Comparison and Backcasting 5.3.3.3 Step 3: Designing System Resilience Matrix to Evaluate the Sustainability of the System 5.3.3.4 Step 4: Comparing Case Studies Based on System Thinking Approach 5.4 System Thinking Findings Discussion 5.4.1 Macro System Behavior 5.4.2 Three Social-Ecological System Misfits 5.4.2.1 Problem of Missing Feedback 5.4.2.2 Problem of Trade-Offs 5.4.2.3 Lack of System Resilience Strategies 5.5 Conclusion Appendix 1: Technical Note on Data Collection Appendix 2: Urban River Ideal Matrix of System Resilience References 6: Understanding Blue-Green Infrastructure Through Spatial Maps: Contribution of Remote Sensing and GIS Technology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Mapping BGI Using Remote Sensing and GIS 6.2.1 Panchromatic and Multispectral Remote Sensing 6.2.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 6.2.3 Vegetation and Water Indices 6.2.4 Radar Remote Sensing 6.2.5 LiDAR 6.3 Conclusion References Part II: Challenges and Constraints 7: Cities and Biodiversity: Hidden Connections Between the Built Form and Life 7.1 Urbanisation and The Evolution of Cities 7.2 Urbanisation and Impacts on Biodiversity 7.3 Theorising Urbanisation-Biodiversity Interactions 7.4 Socioecological Interactions in Cities 7.4.1 Ancient Jerusalem: Biodiversity Shaped by Religion and Geography 7.4.2 Modern Bengaluru: Colonial Production of Biodiversity 7.4.3 Contemporary Singapore: A Biodiversity Paradox 7.5 The Urbanisation Benefits for Biodiversity 7.6 Sustainable Urban Biodiversity and Its Challenges References 8: Assessing Ecological Risks of Urban Air and Water Environment to Analyse the Scenarios for Mainstreaming Nature-Based Solut... 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Study Area 8.3 Methodology 8.3.1 Derivation of LULC and NDVI 8.3.2 Derivation of Urban Expansion Index, ERI, GBR, BBA and ISA 8.3.2.1 Urban Expansion Index 8.3.2.2 Ecological Risk Index 8.3.2.3 Green-to-Blue Ratio 8.3.2.4 Blue to Built-up Area 8.3.2.5 Percentage Impervious Surface Area 8.3.2.6 Methodology for Generating Air Pollution Maps Using Ground-Based Data 8.3.3 Derivation of NbS Scenarios 8.4 Results and Discussion 8.4.1 LULC Analysis 8.4.2 NDVI Analysis 8.4.3 Urbanisation Expansion Index 8.4.4 GBR, BBA Ratios and ISA 8.4.5 Air Quality Index and Its Parameters 8.4.6 Derivation of NbS Scenarios Based on the AQI, ERI, BBA, GBR and ISA (Under Preparation) 8.5 Conclusions References 9: Do People Appreciate Economic Value of Water in Baku City of Azerbaijan? 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Materials and Methods 9.3 Results and Discussion 9.3.1 Survey Results 9.4 Econometric Analysis: A Structural Model of Demand for Integrated Water Services 9.4.1 Random Utility Model 9.4.2 The Econometric Estimates 9.5 Conclusions Appendix References Part III: Multiscale Environmental Design for BGI 10: Homegardens as Sustainable Urban Agroforestry Systems to Promote Household Well-Being in Kandy, Sri Lanka 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Literature Review 10.2.1 Urban Green Space Policy in Sri Lanka: Initiatives and Strategies 10.2.2 Homegardens in Sri Lanka 10.3 Homegardens in Kandy 10.3.1 Kandy District: A Glimpse 10.3.2 Kandyan Homegardens and Their Characteristics 10.3.3 Importance of KHGs in Sustainability and Resilience Building 10.3.4 Threats to Homegardens 10.3.5 How Can Homegardens Be Incorporated in Urban Planning Strategies in Kandy 10.4 Conclusion References 11: Opportunities for Improving Urban Tree Cover: A Case Study in Kochi 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Mapathon: A Methodological Approach 11.2 Study Area 11.3 Materials and Methodology 11.3.1 Data Used 11.3.2 Methodology 11.3.3 Mapathon Process 11.3.3.1 Step 1: Planning Phase 11.3.3.2 Step 2: Preparatory Phase 11.3.3.3 Step 3: Mapathon Events 11.3.4 Data Curation and Identification of Suitable Wards for Deep Dive Analysis 11.3.5 Developing the Restoration Interventions 11.4 Results and Discussion 11.4.1 Exiting Interventions and Restoration Potential for Kochi Based on Mapathon 11.4.2 Deep Dive Analysis 11.4.3 Existing and Potential for Tree-Based Interventions for Vaduthala Based on Mapathon 11.4.4 Potential for Tree-Based Interventions Based on Spatial Analysis 11.5 Conclusion References 12: Changing People-Nature Linkages Around Green Infrastructure in Rapidly Urbanising Landscapes: The Case of a Protected Area... 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methodology 12.2.1 Study Area 12.2.2 Data Collection 12.2.2.1 Exploratory Interactions in Villages 12.2.2.2 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) for Participatory Ranking of Ecosystem Services and Disservices from Forests 12.2.2.3 Key Informant Interviews 12.2.3 Data Analysis 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 Shift in the Use of ESS and Disservices from the Forests 12.3.2 Impacts of Urbanisation and Conservation on Livelihoods 12.3.2.1 Impacts on Livestock Rearing 12.3.2.2 Impacts on NTFP Collection 12.3.2.3 Community Perceptions on Livelihood Impacts of the PA 12.3.3 Impacts of Conservation on the Status of Vultures in the Urbanising Landscape 12.3.3.1 Community Perceptions on Vulture Conservation 12.3.3.2 Perceptions of Vulture Conservationists and the FD Official 12.4 Conclusions 12.5 Implications and Recommendations References 13: Remodelling Urban Spaces in the Light of Blue-Green Infrastructure: A Case Study of Guwahati, India 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Grey Infrastructure and the Challenges Within 13.1.2 Dual Impacts of Urbanization and Grey Infrastructure on Urban Ecosystem 13.1.3 Blue-Green Infrastructure and Its Advantages 13.1.4 Footprints of Urbanization in Guwahati City 13.2 Methodology 13.2.1 Data 13.2.2 Image Classification and Accuracy 13.3 Results and Discussion 13.3.1 Spatiotemporal Analysis of Guwahati City 13.3.2 Encroachment of the Reserve Forest by Urban Built-Up 13.3.3 Impacts of Urban Growth in Guwahati 13.3.4 Vulnerability of Flood Hazard in Guwahati 13.4 Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Remodelling Guwahati City 13.5 Conclusion References Part IV: BGI for Sustainable Water Management 14: Nature-Based Solutions for the Restoration of the Abukuma River Basin (Japan) After Typhoon Hagibis 14.1 Nature-Based Solutions in Flood Management in Japan 14.1.1 Traditional Nature-Based Solutions in Japan 14.1.1.1 Kasumi-Tei 14.1.1.2 Nokoshi (Overflow Levee) 14.1.1.3 Etsuryu-Tei (Overflow Levee) 14.1.1.4 Bobirin (Protecting Forests) 14.2 Abukuma River Basin Restoration 14.2.1 Hamao Retention Reservoir 14.2.2 Typhoon Hagibis Hits Japan 14.2.3 Damages at the Hamao Retention Reservoir 14.3 Basin-Wide Flood Management Approach 14.3.1 Shifting to Basin-Wide Flood Control 14.3.2 Integration of Traditional Flood Management Techniques in the Basin-Wide Flood Management Project 14.3.3 Issues and Future Tasks 14.3.3.1 Technological Issues 14.3.3.2 Economic Matters 14.3.3.3 Coordination Tasks 14.4 Conclusions References 15: Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) for Sustainable Development of the Resource Base and Ecosystem Services of Marine and Coastal... 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Marine Ecosystem Services: Existing Approaches and Relevance to Resources Modelling 15.3 Examples of Coastal and Marine NbS Options in Global and Indian Contexts 15.3.1 Global Case Studies 15.3.2 Indian Scenario 15.4 NbS for Achieving Targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for India 15.5 Scope for the Use of Technology for Adapting to NbS Frameworks as NbS Assisting Technologies (NAT) 15.6 Conclusions References 16: Physical Vulnerability Assessment to Flooding of Residential Houses Along the Coastal Areas in Santa Rosa City, Laguna, Ph... 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Climate Change in the Philippines 16.1.2 Impacts of Climate Change-Related Hazards in the Philippines 16.1.3 Community-Based Vulnerability Assessment to Flooding 16.1.4 Physical Characteristics 16.2 Research Methodology 16.2.1 Flooding in Santa Rosa City, Laguna, Philippines 16.2.2 Physical Vulnerability Analysis 16.3 Results 16.3.1 Building Material Analysis 16.3.2 Effect of Height of Ground Floor and Distance from Lake 16.3.3 Effect of Building Age and Number of Floors 16.4 Discussion and Conclusion 16.5 Disaster Reduction and Management Recommendations References 17: The Significance of Ancient Water Systems and the Sacred Groves in the Landscape of Badami, Karnataka: A Geospatial Study 17.1 Background 17.2 Badami: An introduction 17.3 Verdant Spaces: The Sacred Groves 17.4 Water Systems of Badami 17.5 Current Scenario and the Way Forward 17.6 Conclusion References Part V: BGI for Environmental Risk Management 18: Urban Sustainability and Resilience Building: Blue-Green Infrastructure for Air Pollution Abatement and Realizing Multiple... 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure 18.3 Urban Canopy Layer 18.4 Urban Heat Island Reduction 18.5 Urban Air Quality and Role of Green Spaces 18.6 Role of Blue Spaces in Air Quality Improvement 18.7 Sustainable Urban Design 18.8 Resilience Toward Climate Change 18.9 Conclusions and Way Forward References 19: Disaster Risks and Resilience of Urban Bangladesh: Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Disaster Risks and Vulnerabilities in Urban Bangladesh 19.3 Urban Growth and Blue-Green Infrastructures (BGI) in Urban Bangladesh 19.3.1 Urbanization in Bangladesh 19.3.2 BGI in Urban Bangladesh 19.3.2.1 Dhaka City 19.3.2.2 Chittagong City 19.3.2.3 Khulna City 19.3.2.4 Rajshahi City 19.4 BGI in Urban Planning and Practice 19.5 Factors Shaping BGI in Urban Bangladesh 19.5.1 Sociopolitical Factors 19.5.2 Economic Factors 19.5.3 Institutional Factors 19.6 Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) in Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience of Urban Bangladesh References 20: Endorsing City Biodiversity Index (CBI): Assessing Ecosystem Health in Urban Sprawls and Eco-DRR-Inclusive Urban Planning 20.1 Introduction 20.2 City Biodiversity Health 20.3 Concerns for City Ecosystem and Biodiversity 20.4 Suggestions and Way Forward 20.5 Conclusion References 21: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation by Integrating Waste Treatment System Toward Low-Carbon City in Vietnam 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Study Site and Methodology 21.2.1 Study Site: Hoi An City 21.2.2 Analyzing the Waste Flow of SWM Practice Models by Scenarios 21.3 Results and Discussion 21.3.1 Evaluation of GHG Emission from Waste Treatment by Scenarios 21.3.2 Oriented Solid Waste Management Practice Planning for Hoi An City 21.4 Conclusion References Part VI: Policy Concerns for BGI 22: The Roles of Non-governmental Actors in Facilitating Urban Blue-Green Infrastructures: A Comparative Review of the Communi... 22.1 Introduction 22.1.1 Case Study Community: Wenshan District, Taipei City 22.1.2 Non-governmental Facilitators in Community BGIs 22.1.3 Data Collection 22.2 Local Practices by Non-governmental Actors 22.2.1 Overview of the BGI Projects 22.2.2 Communication and Mobilisation 22.2.3 Action and Networking 22.3 Comparison and Discussion 22.3.1 Challenges and Limitations in Facilitating Bottom-Up Actions 22.3.2 Towards a Framework of Integrated Facilitation 22.4 Conclusion and Implications References 23: Mainstreaming Blue-Green Infrastructure in Policy and Planning for Urban Resilience in the Global South: Promises and Pitf... 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Methodology 23.3 BGI-Sensitive Urban Planning and Policy: Exemplary Initiatives from Asia 23.3.1 Sponge Cities of China 23.3.2 Policy Initiatives for Sustainable Urbanization in India 23.3.3 Active, Beautiful, Clean (ABC) Waters Programme in Singapore 23.4 Urban Planning and Policy for BGI: The Way Ahead 23.4.1 Planning and Policy in the Global South Should Recognize High Levels of Heterogeneity and Diversity in Urban Ecology an... 23.4.2 Collaborative, Multiscalar, and Adaptive Management Approaches Should Guide BGI Mainstreaming in Urban Planning and Pol... 23.4.3 Environmental Justice and Equity Are to be Foregrounded in Urban BGI Planning and Policy Making in the Global South 23.4.4 Recognizing and Exploiting the Multifunctionality of BGI in Policies Can Lead to Cost-Effective and Sustainable Solutio... 23.4.5 Greater Public Participation at All Stages of BGI Integration-From Planning to Implementation and Management Is Critica... 23.4.6 Enhancing Public Participation in BGI Adoption Requires Site-Specific Institutional, Economic, or Legal Measures or App... 23.4.7 Knowledge and Information Gaps Crippling BGI Integration in Policies Need to be Urgently Addressed 23.5 Conclusions References