‘blood Is Thicker Than Water’ – Non-royal Consanguineous Marriage In Ancient Egypt: An Exploration Of Economic And Biological Outcomes (archaeopress Egyptology)

Discussions on consanguineous marriage within Egyptology usually focus on brother-sister marriages recorded in census returns from Roman Egypt, or royal sibling marriages amongst the ruling Ptolemies. However, no wide-ranging review exists of non-royal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt despite the economic and biological implications of such relationships. This is the first time that evidence for nonroyal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt has been collated from select sources spanning the Middle Kingdom to the Roman Period and a method created to investigate the potential economic and biological outcomes of these unions, particularly beyond the level of sibling and half-sibling unions. The working definition of consanguineous marriage used throughout this study is that used by clinical geneticists: unions contracted between cousins biologically related as second cousins or closer biological kin. This research argues that for some families, and under certain conditions, consanguineous marriage was a preferred economic strategy in terms of gifts given at marriage and in inheritance, and that families who married consanguineously may have received greater levels of intra-familial support without the expectation of reciprocity. Although there may have been adverse biological outcomes arising from congenital anomalies and genetic disorders in the offspring of consanguineous marriages, the research suggests that it is unlikely that these physical or cognitive disorders were distinguished from other medical disorders in the general health environment of ancient Egypt. The investigation focuses primarily on ancient Egyptian documentary and archaeological sources, including human remains, and is informed by research on consanguinity from a range of disciplines including anthropology, demography, economics and pathology. About the Author Joanne-Marie Robinson is a Visiting Scholar at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology at the University of Manchester. She has a research interest in non-royal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, and the socio-cultural and religious factors that influence this choice of marriage partner. Her work also considers the potential biological outcomes of consanguineous marriage and investigates the reception to congenital physical and cognitive anomalies in ancient Egypt. This book presents the outcomes of a research project. The author holds a PhD in Egyptology and has worked as a lecturer, writer and advisor for television and radio programmes focusing on religion and history. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Information 4 Dedication 4 Contents 7 List of Figures 12 Figure 1.1: Categories of consanguineous marriage. Source: after Hamamy et al., Consanguineous Marriages, Pearls and Perils: Geneva International Consanguinity Workshop Report, 2011: 844. 35 Figure 2.1: Numbers of probable or possible non-royal consanguineous marriages in ancient Egypt allocated to historical periods (reported in select sources, see Appendix 1). 44 Figure 2.2: The seven degrees of relationship from a common ancestor based on the civil Roman system. Source: Schwimmer, https://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/descent/cognatic/civil.html (1998). Accessed 4.10.16. 60 Figure 2.3: The four degrees of relationship from a common ancestor based on canon law. Source: after Schwimmer, https://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/descent/cognatic/canon.html (1998). Accessed 4.10.16. 61 Figure 2.4: Current global prevalence of consanguineous marriage. Source: Courtesy of Global Consang 64 Figure 3.1: Comparison between the woman’s goods and the man’s gift committed in marriage settlements in the Rylands demotic papyri. The figures at the bottom of each column are the values in silver deben. 91 Figure 3.2: Percentage comparison of the woman’s goods in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos. The figures at the bottom of each column are the value of the goods in silver deben. 93 Figure 3.3: Types of documents belonging to family members in the Archive of Pelaias. The archive contains 12 demotic and 11 Greek texts (plus P. Ryl. Dem. 30 which is linked to the archive). 95 Figure 3.4: Texts and transactions associated with family members in the Archive of Pelaias 95 Figure 3.5: The Archive of Horos contains 34 demotic, 25 Greek and one bilingual texts. Nineteen of the transactions in this archive are between consanguineous family members and/or their affines. 97 Figure 3.6: Number of economic transactions between families or individuals related through consanguinity or affinity in the Archive of Horos. Source for document types in the Archive of Horos: Vandorpe and Waebens, 2008: 131. 97 Figure 4.1: Consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina and their links through consanguinity and affinity to other first cousin marriages, 19th–20th dynasties. 114 Figure 4.2: Number of marriages and offspring in family trees with one or more consanguineous marriages (gen. = generations) 117 Figure 5.1: Cleft lip (cleft premaxilla) (young child): A normal (with dotted lines outlining the premaxilla), B incomplete unilateral left cleft, C complete left unilateral cleft, D bilateral cleft, E midline cleft, F agenesis of the maxilla - wide cleft 144 Figure 5.2: Cleft lip (premaxilla) with cleft (maxillary) palate (young child): A normal (with dotte 146 Figure 5.3: Large bilateral cleft of the central and posterior area of the palate, adult female, X group, Ballana Culture, Nubia, AD 400–600. Photograph courtesy of Roger Forshaw. 148 Figure 5.4: Frontal view of the 25th dynasty skull with midline cleft lip and absence of incisor teeth. The white area is the crown of the right canine lying horizontally across the middle line below the nasal spine. Source: D. E. Derry, 1938, Two Skulls 148 Figure 5.5: Profile view of the 25th dynasty skull with the mandible in position. The upper teeth have been caught between the teeth of the mandible and have been pushed upwards and inwards because of the reduced size of the palate. Source: Derry, 1938, T 149 Figure 5.6: Axial CT scan showing bony cleft in midline (straight white arrow). A wad of resin-soaked linen was put over the right side of the child’s nose to restore the natural facial contours (curved white arrow). Copyright: American Roentgen Ray Socie 150 Figure 5.7: A volume-rendered shaded-surface-display CT image showing a midline cleft lip.Source: Hoffman and Hudgins, Head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies: evaluation with high-resolution CT and reformation techniques, American Journal o 150 Figure 5.8: Funerary stela of Roma the doorkeeper, dedicated to the goddess Astarte, 18th dynasty. The depiction of Roma’s physical condition could indicate poliomyelitis, talipes equinovarus, and/or cerebral palsy. Reproduced courtesy of Ny Carlsberg Gly 173 Figure 5.9: Attendants in the tomb of Baqt I, Middle Kingdom. The feet of the figure in the centre of the lower register suggest talipes equinovarus, while the figure to the left appears to have kyphosis and the figure to the right may be a dwarf. Redrawn 173 List of Tables 14 Table 1.1 Summary of basic kin terms used across historical periods, their extended meanings using Euro-American terminology, and kin types. Sources: after Franke, Kinship, 2001: 245-46; Lustig, Kinship, gender and age in Middle Kingdom tomb scenes and te 31 Table 1.2 Biological relationships (using Euro-American terminology) and genetic relationships. Source: Bittles, Consanguinity in Context, 2012: 6. 34 Table 2.1: Incidence of consanguineous marriages in the Roman census returns in Egypt. Sources: Bagnall and Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt, 2006: 128; Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in Ancient Demography, 19 44 Table 2.2: Number of funerary stelae on which it is possible to determine genealogical indications and where the wife is called ‘his wife’ or ‘his sister’. Source: Černý, Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt, 1954: 25. 50 Table 2.3: Number of funerary stelae on which it is possible to identify both parents or mother only. Source: Černý, Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt, 1954: 27. 54 Table 2.4: Current religious regulation of first cousin marriage. Source: Bittles and Black, Consanguineous Marriage and Human Evolution, 2010b: 196. 64 Table 3.1: Genetic relationships between consanguineous family members Source: after Bittles, Consanguinity in Context, 2012: 6. 87 Table 3.2: Archive owners and money and goods committed in the Rylands demotic marriage settlements from Pathyris. Sources: Vandorpe and Waebens, Reconstructing Pathyris’ Archives: A Multicultural Community in Hellenistic Egypt, 2009: 156–58; Pestman, Mar 88 Table 3.3: Different valuations of the man’s gift and the woman’s goods in P. Ryl. Dem. 20. 90 Table 3.4: Money and goods committed in the marriage settlements in the Archive of Horos, son of Nechouthes. Sources: Griffith, The Adler Papyri, 1909: 89-93, 99-101; Pestman, Marriage and Matrimonial Property in Ancient Egypt, 1961, Chart A (deeds of Typ 93 Table 3.5: Economic transactions between consanguineous family members and their affines in the Archive of Horos, son of Nechouthes. The family relationship and genetic relationship to Horos are listed according to each transaction.113 98 Table 4.1: Number of consanguineous marriages as a percentage of the overall number of known marriages in Deir el-Medina between the 19th–20th dynasties. Sources: Based on family trees nos. 1–47, Davies, Who’s Who in Deir el-Medina, 1999; Bierbrier, The 109 Table 4.2: Preferred cousin marriage in order of priority amongst mainly urban Muslim and Christian Egyptians. Numbers 2 and 3 for women were often considered interchangeable.Source: Rugh, The Family in Contemporary Egypt, 1986: 111. 111 Table 4.3: Consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina and consanguineous and affinal links between couples. See Appendix 2 for notes detailing the consanguineous and affinal links illustrated in this table and figure 4.1. Sources for family trees: Davies, 113 Acknowledgements 16 Abbreviations 17 Glossary 18 Ancient Egyptian Chronology 20 Papyri and ostraca 21 Chapter 1 Ancient Egyptian marriage and kin terms 25 Introduction 25 Exploring non-royal consanguineous marriage: aims, limitations, and hypotheses 26 Ancient Egyptian marriage 27 Age at Marriage 30 Ancient Egyptian kin terms 30 Consanguinity and consanguineous marriage 33 Defining consanguinity 33 Categories of consanguineous marriage 34 Definitions of Incest 35 Incest avoidance: the incest taboo 36 Identifying genetic markers for consanguinity in human remains 37 Methodology and structure 39 Chapter 2 Consanguinity in historical context 41 Introduction 41 Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt 42 Royal consanguineous marriages 42 Non-royal consanguineous marriages 43 Roman Period 43 Ptolemaic Period 47 The Pharaonic Period 49 Late Period and Third Intermediate Period 50 New Kingdom 52 Middle Kingdom 54 Polygyny and polyandry 57 Evidence for consanguineous marriage outside ancient Egypt 58 Judaism: degrees of prohibited marriage 58 Athens, Sparta and Rome: marriage, law, and degrees of prohibition 59 Christianity: degrees of prohibited marriage 60 Consanguineous marriage in Zoroastrianism 62 Consanguineous marriage in Arabia and Islam 63 Current religious regulation of first cousin marriage 63 Conclusion 65 Chapter 3 The use of inheritance and matrimonial goods as economic strategies 66 Introduction 66 Terms of reference: matrimonial goods, gifts and dowry 67 Ancient Egyptian private property, laws of inheritance, and matrimonial goods 67 Ancient Egyptian inheritance law 68 The Adoption Papyrus 70 The Will of Naunakhte 70 Trial at the Temple of Wepwawet in Siut 70 Ancient Egyptian gifts at marriage 71 Inheritance law and dowry in Mesopotamia, classical Greece and ancient Rome 72 Mesopotamia 72 Classical Greece 74 Ancient Rome 75 Consanguineous marriage: response to, or reaction against, laws of succession? 78 Consanguineous marriage as an economic strategy in ancient Egypt: land consolidation, inheritance and matrimonial goods 80 Protection against disintegration of land ownership: continuity, loss and acquisition 80 Consanguineous marriage: financial commitments, family expectations and timing of transfers 82 Case study: Marriage, consanguinity and economics in Ptolemaic Pathyris 84 Ptolemaic Pathyris and family archives 84 Comparisons between marriage settlements and other economic transactions 85 Categories of consanguineous marriage 86 Requirements and financial commitments in demotic marriage settlements 87 John Rylands demotic marriage settlements 88 Comparisons between financial commitments and unusual features within them 90 Potential implications in the value of marriage settlements in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos 92 Consanguineous and non-consanguineous economic transactions in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos 94 Texts and transactions in the Archive of Pelaias 95 Texts and transactions in the Archive of Horos 96 Consanguineous economic transactions in the Archive of Horos 98 The woman’s matrimonial goods, modern dowry and the economics of consanguinity 99 Case study summary 101 Conclusion 102 Chapter 4 Consanguineous marriage in Deir el-Medina and economic impacts 104 Introduction 104 Terms of reference: altruism and reciprocity 106 Number of consanguineous marriages, networks of interrelated families and types of cousin marriages 107 Consanguineous families and interrelated networks 108 Preferences and outcomes of jural and affective ties in marriages between parallel and cross cousins 109 Occupations within consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina: occupation of husband, husband’s father, and wife’s father 114 Offspring of consanguineous marriages and numbers of known children in their family trees 116 Economic transactions in Deir el-Medina and expectations of altruism and reciprocity in consanguineous families 119 Gift-giving 120 Debts and credit 121 Informal object exchange and barter 123 Family transfers and expectations 124 What affects willingness to give and expectation to receive? 126 Legal bodies and regulatory mechanisms in Deir el-Medina 126 The local court (ḳnbt) 126 The oracle 128 Social networks and informal controls on behaviour 129 Trust and co-operation between families related by consanguinity and affinity 131 Altruism, trust and trustworthiness amongst family members 131 Sliding scales of altruism and reciprocity in Deir el-Medina L2 134 Reputation formation and trustworthiness in Deir el-Medina 135 Conclusion 136 Chapter 5 Biological outcomes of non-royal consanguineous marriage 139 Introduction 139 Reported congenital anomalies in mummified and skeletal remains in ancient Egypt 140 Consanguineous marriage: ancient evidence and modern biological outcomes 141 Congenital anomalies and morbidity in infancy and childhood reported at increased frequency in modern consanguineous families 141 Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt 141 Consanguinity and non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (CL/P) and cleft palate (CP) 142 Characteristics of cleft lip/palate and cleft palate and their reported incidence in modern and ancient populations 143 Cleft lip/palate and cleft palate in ancient Egypt 145 Consanguinity and intellectual and developmental disorders 149 Characteristics of intellectual and developmental disorders and their reported incidence in modern and ancient populations 151 Attitudes towards intellectual and developmental impairment in ancient Greece 152 Attitudes towards intellectual and developmental impairment in ancient Egypt 155 Functioning and adaptive ability, accommodation of impairment, and provision of care 160 Infant survival and functioning and adaptive behaviour associated with non-syndromic orofacial clefting 160 Infant survival and functioning and adaptive behaviour associated with intellectual and developmental disorders 161 Accommodation of impairment and provision of care for non-syndromic orofacial clefting and intellectual and developmental disorders in ancient Egypt 163 Cleft lip and cleft lip and palate 163 Intellectual and developmental disorders 164 Perceptions of health, sickness and disability in ancient Egypt 166 The medical papyri 167 Therapeutic dreams and ritual bathing 168 Cemeteries and intramural burials 170 Physical abnormalities in iconography 172 Funerary ritual: renewal, protection and sustenance 174 Consanguineous marriage and the provision of support networks 175 Conclusion 177 Chapter 6 Conclusion 179 Appendix 1 Table of probable or possible non-royal consanguineous marriages from select sources 182 Appendix 2 Details of consanguineous and affinal links 199 Marriage number 1 - Anhurkhawy (i) and Henutdjuu (i) 199 Marriage number 2: Nebmehyt (iii) and Henutmehyt (iv) 199 Marriage number 3: Buqentuf (i) and Iyi (iii) 199 Marriage number 4: Iyernutef (ii) and Tabaki (i) 200 Marriage number 5: Amennakht (x) and Tarekhanu (i) 201 Marriage number 6: Pashedu (ii) and Tanodjemethemsi (ii)/Nodjemhemsiset (i) 201 Marriage number 7: Nekhemmut (i) and Webkhet (vi/viii) 201 Marriage number 8: Khnummose (i) and Henuwati (i)/(ii) 202 Marriage number 10: Penrennut (i) and Tadehnetemheb (i) 203 Marriage number 9: Ipuy (viii) and Henutmire (i) 203 Marriage number 11: Khons (vi) and Taweretemheb (ii) 204 Appendix 3 Number of known children in eight family trees 205 Notes to Appendix 3: 206 Bibliography 208 Discussions on consanguineous marriage within Egyptology usually focus on brother-sister marriages recorded in census returns from Roman Egypt, or royal sibling marriages amongst the ruling Ptolemies. However, no wide-ranging review exists of non-royal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt despite the economic and biological implications of such relationships. This is the first time that evidence for nonroyal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt has been collated from select sources spanning the Middle Kingdom to the Roman Period and a method created to investigate the potential economic and biological outcomes of these unions, particularly beyond the level of sibling and half-sibling unions. The working definition of consanguineous marriage used throughout this study is that used by clinical geneticists: unions contracted between cousins biologically related as second cousins or closer biological kin. This research argues that for some families, and under certain conditions, consanguineous marriage was a preferred economic strategy in terms of gifts given at marriage and in inheritance, and that families who married consanguineously may have received greater levels of intra-familial support without the expectation of reciprocity. Although there may have been adverse biological outcomes arising from congenital anomalies and genetic disorders in the offspring of consanguineous marriages, the research suggests that it is unlikely that these physical or cognitive disorders were distinguished from other medical disorders in the general health environment of ancient Egypt. The investigation focuses primarily on ancient Egyptian documentary and archaeological sources, including human remains, and is informed by research on consanguinity from a range of disciplines including anthropology, demography, economics and pathology. About the Author Joanne-Marie Robinson is a Visiting Scholar at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology at the University of Manchester. She has a research interest in non-royal consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, and the socio-cultural and religious factors that influence this choice of marriage partner. Her work also considers the potential biological outcomes of consanguineous marriage and investigates the reception to congenital physical and cognitive anomalies in ancient Egypt. This book presents the outcomes of a research project. The author holds a PhD in Egyptology and has worked as a lecturer, writer and advisor for television and radio programmes focusing on religion and history. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Information 4 Dedication 4 Contents 7 List of Figures 12 Figure 1.1: Categories of consanguineous marriage. Source: after Hamamy et al., Consanguineous Marriages, Pearls and Perils: Geneva International Consanguinity Workshop Report, 2011: 844. 35 Figure 2.1: Numbers of probable or possible non-royal consanguineous marriages in ancient Egypt allocated to historical periods (reported in select sources, see Appendix 1). 44 Figure 2.2: The seven degrees of relationship from a common ancestor based on the civil Roman system. Source: Schwimmer, https://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/descent/cognatic/civil.html (1998). Accessed 4.10.16. 60 Figure 2.3: The four degrees of relationship from a common ancestor based on canon law. Source: after Schwimmer, https://umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/descent/cognatic/canon.html (1998). Accessed 4.10.16. 61 Figure 2.4: Current global prevalence of consanguineous marriage. Source: Courtesy of Global Consang 64 Figure 3.1: Comparison between the woman’s goods and the man’s gift committed in marriage settlements in the Rylands demotic papyri. The figures at the bottom of each column are the values in silver deben. 91 Figure 3.2: Percentage comparison of the woman’s goods in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos. The figures at the bottom of each column are the value of the goods in silver deben. 93 Figure 3.3: Types of documents belonging to family members in the Archive of Pelaias. The archive contains 12 demotic and 11 Greek texts (plus P. Ryl. Dem. 30 which is linked to the archive). 95 Figure 3.4: Texts and transactions associated with family members in the Archive of Pelaias 95 Figure 3.5: The Archive of Horos contains 34 demotic, 25 Greek and one bilingual texts. Nineteen of the transactions in this archive are between consanguineous family members and/or their affines. 97 Figure 3.6: Number of economic transactions between families or individuals related through consanguinity or affinity in the Archive of Horos. Source for document types in the Archive of Horos: Vandorpe and Waebens, 2008: 131. 97 Figure 4.1: Consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina and their links through consanguinity and affinity to other first cousin marriages, 19th–20th dynasties. 114 Figure 4.2: Number of marriages and offspring in family trees with one or more consanguineous marriages (gen. = generations) 117 Figure 5.1: Cleft lip (cleft premaxilla) (young child): A normal (with dotted lines outlining the premaxilla), B incomplete unilateral left cleft, C complete left unilateral cleft, D bilateral cleft, E midline cleft, F agenesis of the maxilla - wide cleft 144 Figure 5.2: Cleft lip (premaxilla) with cleft (maxillary) palate (young child): A normal (with dotte 146 Figure 5.3: Large bilateral cleft of the central and posterior area of the palate, adult female, X group, Ballana Culture, Nubia, AD 400–600. Photograph courtesy of Roger Forshaw. 148 Figure 5.4: Frontal view of the 25th dynasty skull with midline cleft lip and absence of incisor teeth. The white area is the crown of the right canine lying horizontally across the middle line below the nasal spine. Source: D. E. Derry, 1938, Two Skulls 148 Figure 5.5: Profile view of the 25th dynasty skull with the mandible in position. The upper teeth have been caught between the teeth of the mandible and have been pushed upwards and inwards because of the reduced size of the palate. Source: Derry, 1938, T 149 Figure 5.6: Axial CT scan showing bony cleft in midline (straight white arrow). A wad of resin-soaked linen was put over the right side of the child’s nose to restore the natural facial contours (curved white arrow). Copyright: American Roentgen Ray Socie 150 Figure 5.7: A volume-rendered shaded-surface-display CT image showing a midline cleft lip.Source: Hoffman and Hudgins, Head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies: evaluation with high-resolution CT and reformation techniques, American Journal o 150 Figure 5.8: Funerary stela of Roma the doorkeeper, dedicated to the goddess Astarte, 18th dynasty. The depiction of Roma’s physical condition could indicate poliomyelitis, talipes equinovarus, and/or cerebral palsy. Reproduced courtesy of Ny Carlsberg Gly 173 Figure 5.9: Attendants in the tomb of Baqt I, Middle Kingdom. The feet of the figure in the centre of the lower register suggest talipes equinovarus, while the figure to the left appears to have kyphosis and the figure to the right may be a dwarf. Redrawn 173 List of Tables 14 Table 1.1 Summary of basic kin terms used across historical periods, their extended meanings using Euro-American terminology, and kin types. Sources: after Franke, Kinship, 2001: 245-46; Lustig, Kinship, gender and age in Middle Kingdom tomb scenes and te 31 Table 1.2 Biological relationships (using Euro-American terminology) and genetic relationships. Source: Bittles, Consanguinity in Context, 2012: 6. 34 Table 2.1: Incidence of consanguineous marriages in the Roman census returns in Egypt. Sources: Bagnall and Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt, 2006: 128; Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in Ancient Demography, 19 44 Table 2.2: Number of funerary stelae on which it is possible to determine genealogical indications and where the wife is called ‘his wife’ or ‘his sister’. Source: Černý, Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt, 1954: 25. 50 Table 2.3: Number of funerary stelae on which it is possible to identify both parents or mother only. Source: Černý, Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt, 1954: 27. 54 Table 2.4: Current religious regulation of first cousin marriage. Source: Bittles and Black, Consanguineous Marriage and Human Evolution, 2010b: 196. 64 Table 3.1: Genetic relationships between consanguineous family members Source: after Bittles, Consanguinity in Context, 2012: 6. 87 Table 3.2: Archive owners and money and goods committed in the Rylands demotic marriage settlements from Pathyris. Sources: Vandorpe and Waebens, Reconstructing Pathyris’ Archives: A Multicultural Community in Hellenistic Egypt, 2009: 156–58; Pestman, Mar 88 Table 3.3: Different valuations of the man’s gift and the woman’s goods in P. Ryl. Dem. 20. 90 Table 3.4: Money and goods committed in the marriage settlements in the Archive of Horos, son of Nechouthes. Sources: Griffith, The Adler Papyri, 1909: 89-93, 99-101; Pestman, Marriage and Matrimonial Property in Ancient Egypt, 1961, Chart A (deeds of Typ 93 Table 3.5: Economic transactions between consanguineous family members and their affines in the Archive of Horos, son of Nechouthes. The family relationship and genetic relationship to Horos are listed according to each transaction.113 98 Table 4.1: Number of consanguineous marriages as a percentage of the overall number of known marriages in Deir el-Medina between the 19th–20th dynasties. Sources: Based on family trees nos. 1–47, Davies, Who’s Who in Deir el-Medina, 1999; Bierbrier, The 109 Table 4.2: Preferred cousin marriage in order of priority amongst mainly urban Muslim and Christian Egyptians. Numbers 2 and 3 for women were often considered interchangeable.Source: Rugh, The Family in Contemporary Egypt, 1986: 111. 111 Table 4.3: Consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina and consanguineous and affinal links between couples. See Appendix 2 for notes detailing the consanguineous and affinal links illustrated in this table and figure 4.1. Sources for family trees: Davies, 113 Acknowledgements 16 Abbreviations 17 Glossary 18 Ancient Egyptian Chronology 20 Papyri and ostraca 21 Chapter 1 Ancient Egyptian marriage and kin terms 25 Introduction 25 Exploring non-royal consanguineous marriage: aims, limitations, and hypotheses 26 Ancient Egyptian marriage 27 Age at Marriage 30 Ancient Egyptian kin terms 30 Consanguinity and consanguineous marriage 33 Defining consanguinity 33 Categories of consanguineous marriage 34 Definitions of Incest 35 Incest avoidance: the incest taboo 36 Identifying genetic markers for consanguinity in human remains 37 Methodology and structure 39 Chapter 2 Consanguinity in historical context 41 Introduction 41 Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt 42 Royal consanguineous marriages 42 Non-royal consanguineous marriages 43 Roman Period 43 Ptolemaic Period 47 The Pharaonic Period 49 Late Period and Third Intermediate Period 50 New Kingdom 52 Middle Kingdom 54 Polygyny and polyandry 57 Evidence for consanguineous marriage outside ancient Egypt 58 Judaism: degrees of prohibited marriage 58 Athens, Sparta and Rome: marriage, law, and degrees of prohibition 59 Christianity: degrees of prohibited marriage 60 Consanguineous marriage in Zoroastrianism 62 Consanguineous marriage in Arabia and Islam 63 Current religious regulation of first cousin marriage 63 Conclusion 65 Chapter 3 The use of inheritance and matrimonial goods as economic strategies 66 Introduction 66 Terms of reference: matrimonial goods, gifts and dowry 67 Ancient Egyptian private property, laws of inheritance, and matrimonial goods 67 Ancient Egyptian inheritance law 68 The Adoption Papyrus 70 The Will of Naunakhte 70 Trial at the Temple of Wepwawet in Siut 70 Ancient Egyptian gifts at marriage 71 Inheritance law and dowry in Mesopotamia, classical Greece and ancient Rome 72 Mesopotamia 72 Classical Greece 74 Ancient Rome 75 Consanguineous marriage: response to, or reaction against, laws of succession? 78 Consanguineous marriage as an economic strategy in ancient Egypt: land consolidation, inheritance and matrimonial goods 80 Protection against disintegration of land ownership: continuity, loss and acquisition 80 Consanguineous marriage: financial commitments, family expectations and timing of transfers 82 Case study: Marriage, consanguinity and economics in Ptolemaic Pathyris 84 Ptolemaic Pathyris and family archives 84 Comparisons between marriage settlements and other economic transactions 85 Categories of consanguineous marriage 86 Requirements and financial commitments in demotic marriage settlements 87 John Rylands demotic marriage settlements 88 Comparisons between financial commitments and unusual features within them 90 Potential implications in the value of marriage settlements in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos 92 Consanguineous and non-consanguineous economic transactions in the Archive of Pelaias and the Archive of Horos 94 Texts and transactions in the Archive of Pelaias 95 Texts and transactions in the Archive of Horos 96 Consanguineous economic transactions in the Archive of Horos 98 The woman’s matrimonial goods, modern dowry and the economics of consanguinity 99 Case study summary 101 Conclusion 102 Chapter 4 Consanguineous marriage in Deir el-Medina and economic impacts 104 Introduction 104 Terms of reference: altruism and reciprocity 106 Number of consanguineous marriages, networks of interrelated families and types of cousin marriages 107 Consanguineous families and interrelated networks 108 Preferences and outcomes of jural and affective ties in marriages between parallel and cross cousins 109 Occupations within consanguineous marriages in Deir el-Medina: occupation of husband, husband’s father, and wife’s father 114 Offspring of consanguineous marriages and numbers of known children in their family trees 116 Economic transactions in Deir el-Medina and expectations of altruism and reciprocity in consanguineous families 119 Gift-giving 120 Debts and credit 121 Informal object exchange and barter 123 Family transfers and expectations 124 What affects willingness to give and expectation to receive? 126 Legal bodies and regulatory mechanisms in Deir el-Medina 126 The local court (ḳnbt) 126 The oracle 128 Social networks and informal controls on behaviour 129 Trust and co-operation between families related by consanguinity and affinity 131 Altruism, trust and trustworthiness amongst family members 131 Sliding scales of altruism and reciprocity in Deir el-Medina L2 134 Reputation formation and trustworthiness in Deir el-Medina 135 Conclusion 136 Chapter 5 Biological outcomes of non-royal consanguineous marriage 139 Introduction 139 Reported congenital anomalies in mummified and skeletal remains in ancient Egypt 140 Consanguineous marriage: ancient evidence and modern biological outcomes 141 Congenital anomalies and morbidity in infancy and childhood reported at increased frequency in modern consanguineous families 141 Consanguineous marriage in ancient Egypt 141 Consanguinity and non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (CL/P) and cleft palate (CP) 142 Characteristics of cleft lip/palate and cleft palate and their reported incidence in modern and ancient populations 143 Cleft lip/palate and cleft palate in ancient Egypt 145 Consanguinity and intellectual and developmental disorders 149 Characteristics of intellectual and developmental disorders and their reported incidence in modern and ancient populations 151 Attitudes towards intellectual and developmental impairment in ancient Greece 152 Attitudes towards intellectual and developmental impairment in ancient Egypt 155 Functioning and adaptive ability, accommodation of impairment, and provision of care 160 Infant survival and functioning and adaptive behaviour associated with non-syndromic orofacial clefting 160 Infant survival and functioning and adaptive behaviour associated with intellectual and developmental disorders 161 Accommodation of impairment and provision of care for non-syndromic orofacial clefting and intellectual and developmental disorders in ancient Egypt 163 Cleft lip and cleft lip and palate 163 Intellectual and developmental disorders 164 Perceptions of health, sickness and disability in ancient Egypt 166 The medical papyri 167 Therapeutic dreams and ritual bathing 168 Cemeteries and intramural burials 170 Physical abnormalities in iconography 172 Funerary ritual: renewal, protection and sustenance 174 Consanguineous marriage and the provision of support networks 175 Conclusion 177 Chapter 6 Conclusion 179 Appendix 1 Table of probable or possible non-royal consanguineous marriages from select sources 182 Appendix 2 Details of consanguineous and affinal links 199 Marriage number 1 - Anhurkhawy (i) and Henutdjuu (i) 199 Marriage number 2: Nebmehyt (iii) and Henutmehyt (iv) 199 Marriage number 3: Buqentuf (i) and Iyi (iii) 199 Marriage number 4: Iyernutef (ii) and Tabaki (i) 200 Marriage number 5: Amennakht (x) and Tarekhanu (i) 201 Marriage number 6: Pashedu (ii) and Tanodjemethemsi (ii)/Nodjemhemsiset (i) 201 Marriage number 7: Nekhemmut (i) and Webkhet (vi/viii) 201 Marriage number 8: Khnummose (i) and Henuwati (i)/(ii) 202 Marriage number 10: Penrennut (i) and Tadehnetemheb (i) 203 Marriage number 9: Ipuy (viii) and Henutmire (i) 203 Marriage number 11: Khons (vi) and Taweretemheb (ii) 204 Appendix 3 Number of known children in eight family trees 205 Notes to Appendix 3: 206 Bibliography 208