Bitemark Evidence: A Color Atlas and Text, 2nd Edition (International Forensic Science and Investigation)

Experts in the field of bitemark evidence confront complexities ranging from the identification and collection of evidence, to microscopic analysis, to legal implications and courtroom admissibility. Now in its second edition, Bitemark Evidence reflects the knowledge, training, experience, opinions, and research of 27 authors from around the world to present an atlas with coverage from a range of disciplines. This comprehensive text details the protocols for photography, collection, preservation, and analysis of bitemarks and examines everything from the history of bitemark evidence, to diagnostic considerations, to expert witnesses and testimony. New in the Second Edition: A historical perspective, beginning with the earliest known bitemark references from the Bible and the Kama Sutra, up to the modern development of forensic organizations around the world Updated chapter on digital photography Practical tips on forensic bitemark photography Processing and analysis of digital images for evidentiary purposes The rationale, use, materials, and methods employed for confocal laser microscopy (CLM) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) Current issues in bitemark analysis and research, emerging technologies, and recent developments Completely revamped section on research with hundreds of accompanying color photographs Experimental bitemarks and histology, with data on the microscopic examination of bitemarks on fresh and frozen piglet skin and the microscopic examination of human bitemarks Updated information on genotypic comparison of oral bacteria isolated from bitemarks and teeth Proper steps in forming a contract with an expert witness Erroneous bitemark opinions and wrongful convictions overturned by DNA evidence Capturing the contemporary scientific understanding in the field and enhanced with more than 1,300 color photos, this atlas is the definitive guide to one of the most fascinating evidentiary domains in the forensic world. Table of Contents......Page 6 Foreword to the Second Edition......Page 12 Foreword to the First Edition......Page 14 Preface......Page 16 Acknowledgments......Page 20 Contributors......Page 22 Section I: A Historical Perspective......Page 25 1. History of Bitemark Evidence......Page 27 1.2.1 From the Beginning through the Middle Ages......Page 28 1.2.3 Other Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Cases......Page 31 1.2.4 Additional Cases......Page 33 1.3.2 Wayne Clifford Boden, 1968–1971 (Canada)......Page 34 1.3.4 People v. Marx, 1974 (California)......Page 35 1.3.6 Other Significant Cases......Page 36 1.3.7 Cases in Modern Europe and the United Kingdom......Page 39 1.3.8 Cases in Modern Africa......Page 40 1.3.9 Cases in Modern Australia......Page 41 1.4.5 American Board of Forensic Odontology......Page 42 1.5.3 University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio Dental School......Page 43 1.6.2 National Academy of Sciences 2009 Report......Page 44 References......Page 45 Section II Bitemark Recognition......Page 47 2.2 Child Abuse......Page 49 2.3 Intimate Partner Abuse......Page 51 2.4 Bitemarks in Elder Abuse......Page 52 2.5 Conclusion......Page 53 References......Page 54 3.1 Death Investigative Systems......Page 57 3.3 The Florida Model......Page 58 3.5 Forensic Odontology Service Unavailable......Page 59 3.7 Bitemarks......Page 61 3.9 Pattern Variables......Page 63 References......Page 64 4.1 Introduction......Page 67 4.3.3 Law Enforcement Officials and Crime Scene Investigators......Page 68 4.4.1 Initial Forensic Dental Evaluation......Page 69 4.5.2 Protocol Development Phase......Page 71 References......Page 72 Section III Description of the Bitemark......Page 75 5.2 Spelling......Page 77 5.4 Demographics......Page 78 5.7 Class Characteristics of the Human Cutaneous Bitemark......Page 79 5.8.2 Linear Abrasions and Contusions......Page 81 5.8.7 Tooth Indentations......Page 82 5.8.9 Multiple and Superimposed Bites......Page 83 5.8.12 Partial Bitemarks......Page 84 5.8.15 Healed Bitemarks......Page 85 5.10 Dog Bites......Page 86 References......Page 88 6.2 Quality of the Bitemark......Page 91 6.3 Profiling the Biter......Page 92 6.4 Maintaining Perspective......Page 93 References......Page 94 Section IV: Collection of Bitemark Evidence: A: Noninvasive Analyses......Page 95 7. Photography......Page 97 7.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum: What It Means to Forensic Photography......Page 98 7.2.2 Absorption......Page 99 7.4 Digital Photographic Systems......Page 101 7.4.1 Professional, Pro-sumer, and Consumer Cameras......Page 102 7.4.2 Lenses......Page 103 7.5 Forensic Photographic Protocol......Page 104 7.6 Visible Spectrum Imaging......Page 105 7.7 Digital Image Acquisition......Page 106 7.7.2 Pixels and Color......Page 107 7.7.4 Resolution and Compression......Page 108 7.7.6 Lens Magnification......Page 109 7.7.8 Saving Digital Images......Page 110 7.8 Considerations for Digital Photography in Order of Importance......Page 111 7.8.1 Alternate Light Imaging......Page 113 7.8.2 Digital ALI Technique for Bitemark Photography......Page 115 7.9 Nonvisible Light Photography: Infrared Technique......Page 118 7.9.2 Infrared Photography Technique......Page 119 7.10 Reflective Ultraviolet Digital Photography......Page 120 7.10.1 Ultraviolet Digital Photography Armamentarium......Page 121 7.11 Application of Photographic Techniques Other Than for Bitemarks......Page 122 References......Page 126 8.2 Infrared Photography......Page 127 8.3 Ultraviolet Photography......Page 128 8.4 Alternate Light Imaging Photography......Page 131 Reference......Page 134 9.1 Introduction......Page 135 9.2.1 Image Processing......Page 136 9.2.2 Image Analysis......Page 139 9.3 Standards......Page 140 9.4.2 Image Acquisition and Archival......Page 141 9.4.3 Image Enhancement Documentation......Page 145 9.5 Software Resources......Page 147 9.5.4 Graphical Interface and Ease of Use......Page 148 9.5.8 Audit Trails......Page 149 9.5.10 Open Source versus Proprietary......Page 150 References......Page 151 10.1 Introduction......Page 155 10.2.1 Unstimulated Salivary Flow......Page 156 10.2.3 Saliva Physiology......Page 157 10.3.2 Locating Saliva Evidence......Page 158 10.4 Recovery of Saliva......Page 159 10.5 DNA Analysis......Page 160 10.7.1 Salivary DNA from a Submerged Body......Page 161 10.7.3 Saliva from Bites Corroborates Conclusions from Physical Comparison......Page 162 10.7.4 DNA from a Bitemark in Cheddar Cheese......Page 163 Acknowledgments......Page 165 References......Page 166 11.2 Materials......Page 169 11.4 Impression Techniques......Page 170 11.5 Storage......Page 174 References......Page 175 12.3 Replication Technique......Page 177 12.5 Scanning Electron Microscope......Page 179 12.6 Skin Surface Details Revealed by SEM......Page 180 References......Page 182 13.1 Bitemarks on Nonperishables......Page 183 13.2 Factors Affecting Bitemarks in Perishables......Page 184 13.3 Preservation, Storage, and Transportation of Perishables......Page 186 References......Page 187 Section IV: Collection of Bitemark Evidence: B: Invasive Analyses......Page 189 14.2 Skin Wetness......Page 191 14.4 Bitemark Removal......Page 192 14.4.1 Ring Techniques and Adhesion......Page 194 14.4.2 Tissue Excision......Page 201 14.5 Tissue Fixation......Page 202 14.8 Transillumination......Page 204 14.9 The Microscope......Page 206 14.10 Histology......Page 209 14.11 Postfixation and Storage......Page 210 References......Page 217 15.3 Components of a Bitemark: Gross Appearance......Page 219 15.5 Contusion/Bruise......Page 220 15.8.1 Bruise......Page 221 15.8.3 Literature Reviews......Page 222 15.12 The Value of Microscopic Study......Page 223 15.15 Acute Bitemark Histopathology Is Unique......Page 224 15.16 Healing Bitemark......Page 227 References......Page 229 Section V: Bitemark Variables and Cases......Page 231 16.2.2 Fatal Aquatic Animal Bites......Page 233 16.3.1 Nonfatal Animal Bites......Page 235 16.3.2 Fatal Animal Bites......Page 236 16.5 Animal Bite Victim Evidence......Page 239 References......Page 240 17.2 The Carnivore......Page 241 17.2.3 The Canine......Page 242 17.2.4 Nonfatal Canine Attack......Page 247 17.2.5 Fatal Canine Attack......Page 248 17.2.6 Deathbed Bitemarks......Page 250 17.3 Forensic Nightmare: Misdiagnosis......Page 252 17.3.3 Direction of Wound Patterning on the Neck......Page 254 17.3.5 Clothing......Page 256 17.3.8 The Skull and Cervical Vertebra: Holes and Bitemarks......Page 257 17.3.11 The Avulsed Scalp......Page 259 17.3.12 Size of Defect on the Skull versus Avulsed Scalp......Page 260 17.3.14 Tissue Vitality and Transillumination......Page 261 17.3.15 Failures of the First Autopsy......Page 262 17.3.17 Forensic Lessons to Be Learned......Page 263 References......Page 264 18.1 Introduction......Page 265 18.2 Factors Affecting Bitemark Dynamics......Page 266 18.3 Alive Recipient of the Bitemark......Page 267 18.3.1 Child......Page 268 18.3.2 Adult......Page 269 18.3.3 Specialized Hospital Centers......Page 270 18.5 Deceased Recipient of the Bitemark......Page 271 18.7 Hair......Page 272 18.8 Orifices......Page 273 18.9 Amputation/Avulsion......Page 275 18.11 Dentition......Page 277 18.13 Bite Overlap......Page 283 18.14 Pigmentation......Page 284 18.15 Photographic Perspectives......Page 285 18.16 Healing and Old Bitemarks......Page 287 18.17 Antemortem Bitemarks......Page 288 18.18 Postmortem Trauma......Page 290 18.19 Clothing......Page 292 18.21 Self-Inflicted Bitemarks......Page 293 18.22 Multiple Bitemarks......Page 294 18.23 Muscle......Page 295 18.26 New Evidence......Page 296 18.29 Single Arch Bite......Page 297 18.30 Circumferential versus Linear Distance......Page 298 18.33 Positional Changes......Page 299 18.35 One-Sided Bite......Page 300 References......Page 305 19.2 Healing Lesions......Page 307 19.4 Patterned Injuries on the Deceased......Page 308 19.4.1 Passive Compression......Page 312 19.4.2 Medical Conditions, Treatment, Autopsy Trauma, and Other Objects......Page 318 19.4.3 Unspecified Marks and Lesions......Page 320 19.5 Summary......Page 322 References......Page 323 Section VI: Research......Page 325 20.1 NAS Report Overview......Page 327 20.1.1 Forensic Odontology......Page 328 20.2.1 Resolution......Page 330 20.2.3 Representation of the Dentition......Page 331 20.3.1 Viscoelasticity......Page 333 20.3.3 Anisotropy......Page 334 20.3.5 Laceration......Page 335 20.3.7 Correcting for Distortion......Page 336 20.3.10 Implications......Page 337 References......Page 339 21. Research, Emerging Technologies, and Recent Developments......Page 341 21.1 History from 1970......Page 342 21.3 ABFO Bitemark Workshops......Page 344 21.4.2 Comments on the Selection of Preorthodontic Models......Page 347 21.6 NIJ and Tom's Toolbox, 2006......Page 348 21.7 Avon, 2007......Page 350 21.8.1 AAFS Position Statement, 2009......Page 351 21.10.2 Clothing......Page 352 21.10.3 Hair Presence and Removal......Page 354 21.10.6 Disproportionate Dimensional Distortion......Page 355 21.10.7 Bitemark Profiling......Page 356 21.10.8 Lingual Markings......Page 357 21.10.12 Ears and Cartilage......Page 359 21.10.16 Bitemark Orientation......Page 360 21.10.19 Contusion within a Bitemark......Page 361 21.10.21 Lividity......Page 363 21.10.22 Freezing......Page 364 21.11 Bitemark Comparison......Page 365 21.12 Summary......Page 370 References......Page 452 22.2.1 The Epidermis......Page 457 22.2.2 The Dermis......Page 458 22.2.3 The Hypodermis......Page 459 22.3.1 The Architecture of a Bitemark......Page 460 22.3.3 Lividity......Page 461 22.3.4 Age and Vitality......Page 462 22.4.2 Freezing Artifacts......Page 464 22.4.3 Principal Observations......Page 465 22.5.1 Bitemark on a Young Adult......Page 466 22.5.2 Bitemark on a Young Child......Page 467 22.6 Conclusion......Page 470 Acknowledgments......Page 475 References......Page 476 23.1 Introduction......Page 477 23.3 Pioneering Work......Page 478 23.5 Genotypic Identification of Oral Streptococci......Page 479 References......Page 483 Section VII: Collection of Evidence from the Suspect......Page 485 24.3 Standard/Digital Photography......Page 487 24.7 Study Casts......Page 489 References......Page 490 Section VIII: Methods of Comparison......Page 491 25.1 Introduction......Page 493 25.2.3 Styrofoam......Page 494 25.2.4 Dental Impression Materials......Page 495 25.2.8 Dynamic Test Bites on a Volunteer......Page 496 25.4 Dental Nomenclature......Page 497 25.5 Inverting Cast (Flip Horizontal) for Comparison......Page 498 25.6.1 Simple Overlays......Page 499 25.6.2 Computer-Generated Overlays......Page 500 25.7 Metric Analysis......Page 504 25.9.1 Pattern Analysis in Three Dimensions......Page 505 25.9.4 The Dental Line-Up......Page 507 25.10 Pattern Recognition Ability......Page 508 25.11 Conclusion......Page 510 References......Page 511 Section IX: The Reports......Page 515 26.3 Basic Qualities of the Forensic Report......Page 517 26.4.1 Preparation......Page 518 26.7 Comparison......Page 519 References......Page 520 Section X: Prevention and Contamination......Page 521 27.2 Personnel......Page 523 27.4 At Autopsy......Page 524 27.6 Impressions and Casts......Page 525 References......Page 527 Section XI: Legal Considerations and the Courtroom......Page 529 28.2 Why Do Almost Half of All Experts Get It Wrong?......Page 531 28.3.2 Justice versus Truth......Page 532 28.3.3 The Adversarial System......Page 533 28.4.3 The Importance of Objectivity......Page 534 28.5.1 Different Rules for Different Roles......Page 535 28.5.3 The Court-Appointed Expert: A Solution to All the Problems?......Page 536 28.6 Effective Presentation versus Factual Advocacy......Page 537 28.7 How to Approach Serving as an Expert Witness in a Bitemark Case......Page 538 References......Page 539 29.1 Introduction......Page 541 29.2 Foundation......Page 543 29.3 Qualification of the Expert......Page 546 29.4 Forensic Dentistry and "Degree of Certainty"......Page 547 29.5 Battling Experts......Page 549 29.6 Qualifying to Testify, Particularly the First Time, for an Expert......Page 553 29.7 Admission versus Weight of the Expert's Testimony and Opinion......Page 556 29.8 Beyond Linkage......Page 557 29.9 Linkage to Objects Other Than Teeth......Page 558 29.10 Even Further beyond Linkage......Page 560 29.11 Expert for the Prosecution but Not the Defense......Page 561 29.12 Testing the Expert......Page 562 References......Page 563 30.1 Forming a Valid Contract......Page 567 30.2 Oral versus Written Contracts......Page 568 30.3 The Offer......Page 569 30.4 The Acceptance......Page 570 30.6 Defenses to a Valid Contract......Page 572 30.7 Remedies for Breach......Page 575 30.8 Typical Parts of a Contract......Page 580 30.9 Sample Contract......Page 582 Consultant Agreement......Page 583 References......Page 584 31.3 The Expert Witness......Page 585 31.5 Courtroom Aids......Page 586 References......Page 591 32.2 Changing Concepts Regarding Absolute Immunity......Page 593 32.3 Expert Witness Immunity Specific to Dentists......Page 595 32.4 What Does This Mean for the Expert?......Page 597 References......Page 599 33.2 The Anatomy of a Wrongful Conviction......Page 601 33.3 Bitemarks and Wrongful Convictions......Page 602 33.4.1 Erroneous Bitemark Opinions Overturned by DNA Evidence......Page 603 References......Page 606 Section XII: Contentious Issues......Page 609 34.1 Introduction......Page 611 34.2.4 Sensitivity and Specificity......Page 612 34.2.5 Receiver Operator Characteristics......Page 614 34.3 Reliability, Daubert, and the Law Courts: The New Gatekeepers of Forensic Science?......Page 615 34.4.1 Whittaker, 1975......Page 616 34.4.2 Pretty and Sweet, 2001......Page 617 34.4.3 The ABFO Bitemark Workshop, Arheart and Pretty, 2001......Page 618 34.5 Statistics and Bitemarks......Page 620 34.6 Summary......Page 621 References......Page 622 35.3 Human Skin as a Bite Registration Material......Page 625 35.4.1 Physical Comparisons......Page 630 35.4.2 Molecular Biological Techniques......Page 631 35.6 Uniqueness of the Human Dentition......Page 632 References......Page 636 Section XIII: Appendices......Page 639 Appendix 1: ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines-Outline......Page 641 Appendix 2: ABFO Guidelines for Investigative and Final Bitemark Reports......Page 643 Appendix 3: Bitemark Checklist-Bitemark Recipient......Page 645 Appendix 4: Bitemark Checklist-Suspected Biter......Page 649 Appendix 5: Sample Consent Form......Page 653 Appendix 6: Dental Nomenclature......Page 655