Biomaterials For Organ And Tissue Regeneration: New Technologies And Future Prospects (woodhead Publishing Series In Biomaterials)

Biomaterials for Organ and Tissue Regeneration: New Technologies and Future Prospects examines the use of biomaterials in applications related to artificial tissues and organs. With a strong focus on fundamental and traditional tissue engineering strategies, the book also examines how emerging and enabling technologies are being developed and applied. Sections provide essential information on biomaterial, cell properties and cell types used in organ generation. A section on state-of-the-art in organ regeneration for clinical purposes is followed by a discussion on enabling technologies, such as bioprinting, on chip organ systems and in silico simulations. Provides a systematic overview of the field, from fundamentals, to current challenges and opportunities Encompasses the classic paradigm of tissue engineering for creation of new functional tissue Discusses enabling technologies such as bioprinting, organ-on-chip systems and in silico simulations Cover Biomaterials for Organ and Tissue Regeneration: New Technologies and Future Prospects Copyright Contents List of contributors Preface Acknowledgment Section 1: Properties and forms of biomaterials 1 Introduction to biomaterials for tissue/organ regeneration 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Many facets of new biomaterials: new naturally sourced biomaterials, new synthetic biomaterials, materiomics, metabioma... 1.3 Off-shoot technologies linked to biomaterials and tissue engineering: biorobotics, bioinks, and bioprinting 1.4 Biomaterial risk assessment 1.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 2 Physicochemical properties of biomaterials 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Bulk properties of biomaterials 2.2.1 Shape and size control 2.2.2 Mechanical properties 2.2.3 Corrosion and degradation in a given chemical environment 2.2.4 Control of porosity, pore size, and pore connectivity 2.3 Surface properties of biomaterials 2.3.1 Surface energy-hydrophilicity 2.3.2 Lack of toxicity, of unfavorable immunological response, hemocompatibility 2.3.3 Surface topography 2.3.4 Protein adsorption 2.3.5 Versatile modification of the biomaterials’ surface chemistry 2.3.6 Degradability of surface coatings 2.3.7 Antibacterial properties 2.3.8 Active biomaterials 2.4 Properties of biomimetic biomaterials 2.5 Real-time monitoring of an implanted biomaterial and personalized implants 2.6 Conclusion and perspectives References 3 Polymer-based composites for musculoskeletal regenerative medicine Abbreviations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 A brief history of composites 3.3 Polymer-based composites scaffold characteristics 3.3.1 Mechanical properties 3.3.2 Biodegradation properties 3.4 Polymer-based composite scaffolds for specific musculoskeletal tissue regeneration 3.4.1 Bone 3.4.1.1 Composite with bioactive ceramics/glasses 3.4.1.1.1 Composites with calcium phosphate–based bioceramics 3.4.1.1.2 Composites with bioactive glasses 3.4.1.2 Nanocomposite materials mimicking mineralized collagen fibrils 3.4.1.3 Electrically conductive composites 3.4.1.4 Magnetized composites 3.4.2 Cartilage and osteochondral regeneration 3.4.2.1 Composites of natural polymers 3.4.2.2 Composites of synthetic and natural polymers 3.4.2.2.1 Gelatin/PCL 3.4.2.2.2 Oligo(poly(ethylene glycol)fumarate) gel/gelatin microparticles 3.4.2.2.3 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-gelatin/chondroitin sulfate/hyaluronic acid scaffold 3.4.2.3 Composites of synthetic polymers 3.4.2.4 Composites of synthetic or natural polymers with bioceramics 3.4.3 Tendon, ligament, and enthesis regeneration 3.4.3.1 Natural composites 3.4.3.2 Synthetic composites 3.4.4 Skeletal muscle regeneration 3.4.4.1 Composites of synthetic and natural polymers 3.4.4.2 Synthetic composites 3.5 The necessity for nerve and vascular regeneration 3.5.1 Importance of vasculature and innervation for skeletal muscle regeneration 3.5.2 Importance of vasculature and innervation for bone regeneration 3.6 Nerve regeneration 3.6.1 Composite biomaterial approach for nerve regeneration 3.6.1.1 Composites of synthetic polymers (copolymers) 3.6.1.2 Composites containing carbon nanostructures 3.6.1.3 Polymer–ceramics composites 3.6.1.4 Synthetic polymer–natural polymer composites 3.6.1.5 Composite nerve guide conduit with structural adaptation 3.6.1.5.1 Multichannel nerve guide conduit 3.6.1.5.2 Electrospun fibrous nerve guide conduit 3.6.1.5.3 Nerve guide conduit with intraluminal guidance 3.7 Vascular regeneration 3.7.1 Fabrication of polymer-based composite scaffolds that incorporate a vascular network 3.7.2 Engineering of small diameter blood vessels (%3c6mm) with polymer-based composites 3.7.2.1 Synthetic polymer–based composites containing collagen and gelatin 3.8 Conclusion and future prospects Acknowledgments References 4 Emerging biotechnological approaches with respect to tissue regeneration: from improving biomaterial incorporation to com... 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Analytical methodologies for protein identification and monitoring 4.3 Mass spectrometry–based proteomic analysis 4.3.1 Sample preparation for proteomics experiments 4.3.2 Peptide mixture analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry 4.3.3 Protein identification 4.3.4 Applications of proteomic analysis to the development of biomaterials for tissue regeneration 4.4 Analytical methodologies adapted to protein structural characterization 4.4.1 Sample preparation 4.4.2 Tandem mass spectrometry–based analysis of posttranslational modifications 4.5 Conclusion References 5 Use of nanoscale-delivery systems in tissue/organ regeneration 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Properties and application areas of nanoscale-delivery systems in biomedical field 5.2.1 Delivery systems for therapeutic purpose 5.2.2 Delivery systems for tissue and organ regeneration 5.3 Nanoscale-delivery systems for regeneration purposes 5.3.1 Morphological classification of nanoscale-delivery systems 5.3.1.1 Nanoparticles 5.3.1.1.1 Polymeric nanoparticles Nanoparticles of natural polymers Carbohydrate-based nanoparticles Protein-based nanoparticles Nanoparticles of synthetic polymers 5.3.1.1.2 Lipid nanoparticles 5.3.1.1.3 Inorganic nanoparticles Ceramic nanoparticles Metallic nanoparticles Quantum dots 5.3.1.2 Nanotubes 5.3.1.2.1 Carbon nanotubes 5.3.1.2.2 Clay nanotubes 5.3.1.2.3 Metallic nanotubes 5.3.1.3 Nanorods 5.3.1.3.1 Metallic nanorods 5.3.1.3.2 Composite nanorods 5.3.1.4 Nanocages 5.3.1.4.1 Metallic nanocages 5.3.1.4.2 Organosilicon nanocages 5.4 Emerging delivery technologies in nanoparticle area 5.4.1 Microfluidic devices for production of nanoparticles 5.4.2 Recruiting 3D printing and nanoparticles for tissue engineering applications 5.5 Conclusion and future perspectives References 6 Surface functionalization of biomaterials for cell biology applications 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 From artificial to bioinspired materials: challenges at the cell–material interface 6.2 Engineering the cell–material interface 6.2.1 Surface mimics of the extracellular matrix 6.2.2 Chemical and spatial control of cell adhesion to surface materials 6.3 Delivery strategies for growth factors at the cell–material interface 6.3.1 Biofunctionalization strategies for tailoring the spatiotemporal delivery of growth factors 6.3.2 Guidance of cell responses by growth factors complexed with surface materials 6.4 Conclusion and outlook References 7 Stem cells: sources, properties, and cell types 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Stem cell properties 7.2.1 Self-renewal 7.2.2 Potency 7.3 Cell types 7.3.1 Embryonic stem cells 7.3.2 Induced pluripotent stem cells 7.3.2.1 Reprograming techniques 7.3.3 Adult stem cells 7.3.3.1 Hematopoietic stem cells 7.3.3.2 Mesenchymal stem cells 7.3.3.2.1 Bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells 7.3.3.2.2 Adipose-derived stem cells 7.3.3.2.3 Bone marrow–derived mesenchymal stem cells and adipose-derived stem cells 7.3.3.2.4 Risks of mesenchymal stem cells 7.4 Applications of stem cells in tissue engineering 7.5 Conclusion References 8 Immune cells: sources, properties, and cell types Abbreviations 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Immune system consideration in the use of biomaterials and tissue regeneration 8.2.1 Overall description of the immune system: innate versus adaptive system (“know your basics”) 8.2.1.1 Just a matter of recognition 8.2.1.2 Just a matter of amplification and increased efficiency 8.2.2 Tissue regeneration/wound healing (“why immune system is so important”) 8.2.3 Immune response to biomaterials: when all goes wrong, that is, the foreign body reaction 8.3 Immune cell description 8.3.1 Myeloid cells 8.3.2 Innate-like lymphocytes 8.3.3 Lymphocytes 8.4 Immune cell sourcing 8.5 In vivo testing 8.6 Conclusion References 9 Cell signaling and strategies to modulate cell behavior 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 How to modulate cell adhesion, cell migration, and cell extrusion? 9.1.2 Synthetic matrices to control cell programming and reprogramming 9.1.3 Nuclear mechanics and mechanical memory 9.2 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Section 2: Biomaterials use in organ specific applications 10 Cardiovascular tissue engineering 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The cardiovascular system 10.2.1 Arterial tissue 10.2.2 Cardiac tissue 10.3 Cardiovascular disease 10.4 Coronary artery bypass grafting 10.4.1 Vascular grafts 10.4.2 Role of biomechanical compliance 10.5 Tissue-engineered blood vessels 10.5.1 Biomaterials for tissue-engineered blood vessels 10.5.2 Stem cells in tissue-engineered blood vessel applications 10.6 Electrospinning of tissue-engineered blood vessels 10.6.1 Fundamentals of electrospinning 10.6.2 Electrospinning parameters 10.6.3 Collector systems for creating electrospun vessels 10.6.4 Limitations of electrospun scaffolds 10.7 Future outlook for cardiovascular tissue engineering Acknowledgments References 11 Bioartificial gut—current state of small intestinal tissue engineering 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The small intestine—structural organization and function 11.3 Modeling the small intestine—biology meets engineering 11.3.1 Modeling the small intestine in vitro by two-dimensional monolayer cell cultures 11.3.2 Small intestinal organoids—artificial mini organs grown in vitro 11.3.2.1 Organoid cell sources 11.3.2.2 Organoids as in vitro tools to model or study intestinal diseases 11.4 Small intestinal tissue engineering in the Transwell—when cells meet scaffolds 11.5 Next-generation models—integration of microenvironmental factors 11.6 Outlook References 12 From insulin replacement to bioengineered, encapsulated organoids 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Pancreas 12.3 Pancreatic islet 12.3.1 Composition of pancreatic islets 12.3.1.1 α-Cells: glucagon production 12.3.1.2 β-Cells: insulin and amylin production 12.3.1.3 δ-Cells: somatostatin 12.3.1.4 Pancreatic polypeptide cells: pancreatic polypeptide production 12.3.1.5 ε-Cells: ghrelin 12.3.2 β-Cells role and insulin function 12.4 Diabetes 12.4.1 Type 1 diabetes 12.4.2 Type 2 diabetes 12.4.3 Gestational diabetes 12.4.4 Other diabetes 12.4.5 Poor glycemia regulation complications 12.4.5.1 Acute complications 12.4.5.2 Chronic complications 12.5 Insulin replacement for type 1 diabetes 12.5.1 Glucose measurements 12.5.1.1 Capillary blood measurement 12.5.1.2 Interstitial blood measurements 12.5.2 Exogenous insulin 12.5.2.1 Multiple daily injections 12.5.2.2 Continuous subcutaneous delivery insulin 12.5.2.3 Artificial pancreas 12.5.3 Endogenous insulin production 12.5.3.1 Pancreas transplantation 12.5.3.2 Pancreatic islet transplantation 12.6 Islet transplantation limits (Fig. 12.5) 12.6.1 Low isolation yield and high pancreas requirement 12.6.2 Extracellular matrix destruction 12.6.3 Hypoxia 12.6.4 Instant blood-mediated inflammatory reaction 12.6.5 Autoimmunity and alloimmunity 12.6.6 Immune suppressive regimen 12.7 Improvements in islet transplantation (Fig. 12.7) 12.8 Other sources of insulin-secreting cells 12.8.1 Cells of animal origin 12.8.1.1 Pig islet function 12.8.1.2 Risk of zoonosis 12.8.1.3 Xenotransplantation and specific immune response 12.8.2 Surrogate cells 12.8.2.1 Embryonic stem cells 12.8.2.2 Induced pluripotent stem cells 12.9 The bioartificial pancreas 12.9.1 Definition 12.9.2 Microencapsulation 12.9.3 Macroencapsulation 12.10 Conclusion References 13 Diabetic wound healing with engineered biomaterials 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Impaired wound healing under condition of diabetes 13.2.1 Diabetic foot ulcer complications 13.2.2 Cellular and molecular events in diabetic foot ulcer 13.2.3 Implication of advanced glycation end products on cell function 13.2.3.1 Neutrophils 13.2.3.2 Fibroblasts 13.2.3.3 Keratinocytes 13.2.3.4 Endothelial cells 13.2.4 Epigenetic changes related to diabetic foot ulcer 13.3 Physicochemical aspects and fabrication of biomaterials in diabetic wound healing 13.3.1 Hydration 13.3.2 Oxygenation 13.3.3 Infection control 13.3.4 Nanoparticle synthesis and its bioactivity 13.3.5 Cross-linking of biopolymers 13.4 Biomaterials supporting the administration of bioactive agents 13.4.1 Therapy based on growth factors 13.4.2 Pharmacological treatment alternative to growth factors 13.4.3 Treatment with natural extracts 13.4.4 Gene therapy–based approaches 13.4.5 Cell therapy–based approaches 13.5 Biomaterials with prohealing activity 13.5.1 Natural extracellular matrix biomaterials 13.5.2 Peptide-based biomaterials 13.5.3 Inorganic agent–containing dressings 13.6 Final remarks References 14 Bone morphogenetic protein–assisted bone regeneration and applications in biofabrication 14.1 Background 14.2 Bone morphogenetic protein for bone regeneration 14.2.1 Bone morphogenetic protein delivery via carrier materials 14.2.2 Clinical products 14.3 Bone morphogenetic protein limitations 14.3.1 On- and off-label use 14.3.2 Complications and risks 14.3.3 Implant considerations 14.4 Current strategies 14.4.1 Minimizing dose 14.4.2 Controlled release systems 14.4.2.1 Microparticle bone morphogenetic protein encapsulation 14.4.2.2 Matrix bone morphogenetic protein encapsulation 14.4.2.3 Matrix bone morphogenetic protein surface coatings 14.4.3 Complex biomaterials and biofabrication systems 14.4.3.1 Bioactive materials 14.4.3.2 Advanced biomanufacturing 14.5 Conclusion Acknowledgement References 15 Adipose tissue engineering 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The adipose cells for the reconstruction of in vitro models 15.2.1 Preadipocytes cell lines 15.2.2 Primary bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells 15.2.3 Primary adipose–derived stem cells 15.2.4 Primary mature adipocytes 15.2.5 The importance of the vascularization in adipose models 15.2.6 Human cells or other species? 15.3 Current existing in vitro adipose tissues models 15.3.1 Reconstruction of an in vitro adipose tissue without scaffold 15.3.2 Use of synthetic scaffolds 15.3.3 Natural components in adipose tissue engineering 15.4 Medical applications of adipose tissues grafts 15.4.1 For cosmetic surgery 15.4.2 For reconstructive surgery 15.4.3 For wound healing 15.4.4 For bone healing 15.5 Further developments needed 15.5.1 Vascularized adipose tissues 15.5.2 Addition of other surrounding cells types 15.5.2.1 Adipose pericytes 15.5.2.2 Adipose macrophages 15.5.2.3 Skin cells 15.5.2.4 Muscle cells 15.5.2.5 Cancer cells 15.5.3 Reconstruction of the different types of adipose tissues 15.5.3.1 “White” (fat storage adipose tissue) 15.5.3.2 “Brown” (heat production adipose tissue) 15.5.3.3 “Yellow” (bone marrow adipose tissue) 15.5.3.4 “Pink” (breast adipose tissue) 15.6 Conclusion References 16 Blood–brain barrier tissue engineering 16.1 Introduction, specificities of the blood–brain barrier 16.1.1 A highly selective barrier 16.1.2 Endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes 16.1.3 Extracellular matrix 16.1.4 First attempts in blood–brain barrier models 16.2 Spheroids 16.3 Templated vessels’ growth 16.3.1 Rigid channels 16.3.2 Extracellular matrix channels 16.4 Sprouts and guided capillaries growth 16.5 Capillaries self-organization 16.5.1 Capillaries self-organization on top of Matrigel® 16.5.2 Capillary self-organization on microchips 16.5.3 Capillaries self-organization in device-free hydrogels 16.6 Current challenges in translational research 16.7 Implantation prospects 16.8 Conclusion References 17 Tissue engineering in urology 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Biomaterials for urological tissues 17.2.1 Kidney tissue engineering 17.2.2 Bladder tissue engineering 17.3 Conclusion and future perspectives Conflict of interest References Further reading 18 Respiratory tissue replacement and regeneration: from larynx to bronchi 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Normal respiratory tissue 18.2.1 Embryology 18.2.2 Larynx 18.2.2.1 Descriptive anatomy 18.2.2.2 Endoscopic anatomy 18.2.2.3 Physiology 18.2.3 Lower airways: trachea, carina, bronchi, bronchioles 18.2.3.1 Anatomy 18.2.3.2 Histology 18.2.3.3 Physiology 18.3 Airways diseases 18.3.1 Laryngeal diseases 18.3.2 Tracheobronchial diseases 18.3.2.1 Tracheal stenosis 18.3.2.1.1 Congenital stenosis 18.3.2.1.2 Acquired stenosis 18.3.2.2 Oeso-tracheal fistulas 18.4 Replacement and regeneration strategies 18.4.1 Laryngeal transplantation 18.4.2 Biomaterials 18.4.3 Tissue engineering 18.4.3.1 Scaffold 18.4.3.1.1 Manufactured scaffolds 18.4.3.1.2 Biological matrix in tracheal engineering 18.4.3.2 Cells 18.4.3.2.1 Cartilage 18.4.3.2.2 Respiratory epithelium 18.4.3.2.3 Cocultures 18.5 Transplant 18.5.1 Nonliving tissue transplants 18.5.2 Autografts 18.5.3 Allografts 18.6 Conclusion and outlook References 19 Platelet-rich plasma in tissue engineering 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Blood composition 19.1.1.1 Plasma 19.1.1.2 Red blood cells or erythrocytes 19.1.1.3 White blood cells or leukocytes 19.1.1.4 Platelets 19.1.2 How does platelet-rich plasma work? 19.1.2.1 History 19.1.2.2 Platelet action 19.1.3 Preparation of platelet-rich plasma–based biomaterials 19.1.3.1 Use of anticoagulant 19.1.3.2 Centrifugation 19.1.3.3 Buffy-coat method 19.1.3.4 Activation method to induce platelet degranulation and release of growth factors 19.1.3.5 Storage 19.2 Tissue engineering 19.2.1 An autologous cell culture supplement 19.2.2 Platelet-rich plasma in tissue-engineered constructs 19.3 Platelet-rich plasma in regenerative medicine 19.4 Conclusion References Section 3: Emerging and enabling technologies for biomaterials in tissue regeneration 20 Nanocomposite hydrogels for tissue engineering applications 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Conventional hydrogels and their limitations 20.2.1 Natural polymers 20.2.1.1 Polysaccharides-based hydrogels 20.2.1.2 Protein-based hydrogels 20.2.2 Synthetic polymers 20.3 Nanomaterials for engineering composite hydrogel systems 20.3.1 Methods for creating nanocomposite hydrogel systems 20.3.1.1 Incorporation of prefabricated nanomaterials 20.3.1.2 In situ hydrogel conversion 20.3.2 Nanoparticles in tissue engineering 20.4 Properties of nanocomposite hydrogels 20.4.1 Tailored mechanical and structural properties 20.4.2 Enhanced electrical conductivity 20.4.3 Enhanced availability of biological factors and drugs 20.4.4 Cellular reprogramming 20.5 Conclusion and future directions Acknowledgments References 21 Functional carbon-based nanomaterials for engineered tissues toward organ regeneration 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Characteristics of carbon-based materials used for tissue engineering 21.2.1 Graphene 21.2.2 Carbon nanotubes 21.3 Function mimetic carbon-based engineered tissues 21.3.1 Skeletal muscle regeneration 21.3.2 Cardiac tissue regeneration 21.3.3 Neural tissue regeneration 21.4 Bone regeneration 21.5 Considerations for in vivo tissue regeneration 21.5.1 Toxicity 21.5.2 Biodegradability 21.6 Conclusion and future perspectives References 22 Hyaluronic acid–based hydrogels for tissue engineering 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Chemical modifications of hyaluronic acid 22.2.1 Hyaluronic acid 22.3 Cross-linking chemistry of hyaluronic acid 22.3.1 Schiff-base cross-linking hydrogels 22.3.2 Diels–Alder click cross-linked hydrogel 22.3.3 Photo-cross-linking 22.3.4 The hyaluronic acid–disulfide cross-linking hydrogels 22.4 Hyaluronic acid as a biomaterial in tissue engineering 22.4.1 Hyaluronic acid–based scaffolds 22.5 Conclusion Acknowledgement References 23 Microfluidics in tissue engineering 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Design considerations of microfluidics chips 23.2.1 Photolithography 23.2.2 Microcontact printing 23.2.3 Micropatterning of cells on microchannels 23.2.4 Cryopreservation techniques of cells for tissue engineering 23.3 Biomaterials at microscale 23.3.1 Composite microparticles 23.3.2 Particulate biomaterials at the nanoscale 23.3.3 Fibrous biomaterials at micro- and nanoscale 23.3.4 Sheet biomaterials 23.4 Methods for cell patterning and cultivation 23.4.1 Cell-patterning techniques 23.4.2 Bioreactors 23.4.3 Microfluidic devices for cell manipulation 23.4.4 Microenvironment on cell integrity 23.5 Microfluidic cell culture models for tissue engineering 23.5.1 Basal lamina 23.5.2 Vascular tissue 23.5.3 Liver 23.5.4 Bone 23.6 Conclusion References Further reading 24 Biomechanical characterization of engineered tissues and implants for tissue/organ replacement applications 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Biomechanics and mechanobiology 24.3 Mechanobiology and biomaterials functionality 24.4 Methods and challenges 24.5 Biomaterials evaluation: a practical example 24.6 Conclusion and outlook References 25 In vitro disease and organ model 25.1 Model development 25.1.1 Microengineered tissues 25.1.1.1 Photo-patterned microgels 25.1.1.2 Emulsion-based microgels 25.1.1.3 Bioactive microfibers 25.1.2 Microfluidic tissue models and microphysiological systems 25.1.3 Emerging biofabrication technologies 25.1.4 Stem cell technology—biomaterial interface 25.1.5 Organoids 25.1.6 Rationale design of biomaterials for disease modeling 25.1.7 Biocompatibility 25.1.8 Biodegradability 25.1.9 Vascularity 25.1.10 Mechanical properties 25.1.11 Electrical conductivity 25.2 Emerging applications and clinical considerations 25.2.1 Inflammatory response and cancer modeling 25.2.2 Cardiovascular diseases 25.2.3 Skin diseases 25.2.4 Gastrointestinal diseases 25.2.5 Neurological disorders 25.3 Conclusion References 26 Biomaterials for on-chip organ systems 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Design and biomaterial considerations for the development of specialized microphysiological systems 26.3 Selection parameters for biomedical applications 26.3.1 Lung 26.3.2 Brain 26.3.3 Heart 26.3.4 Kidney 26.3.5 Liver 26.3.6 Gut 26.3.7 Muscle 26.3.8 Bone 26.3.9 Multiorgan 26.4 Organ-on-chip platforms to mimic human pathophysiology 26.5 Applications beyond conventional research 26.5.1 Space 26.5.2 Military 26.6 Biomaterials for chip fabrication 26.6.1 Elastomers 26.7 Thermoplastics 26.8 Hydrogels 26.9 Biomaterials for tissue fabrication for organ-on-chip platforms 26.10 Challenges and outlook References Further reading 27 Bioreactors in tissue engineering: mimicking the microenvironment 27.1 The role of bioreactors in tissue engineering 27.2 Bioreactor configurations 27.2.1 Stirred bioreactors 27.2.2 Wave bioreactors 27.2.3 Parallel-plate bioreactors and parallel-plate flow chamber bioreactors 27.2.4 Rotating wall vessel (reduced gravity) bioreactors 27.2.5 Strain bioreactors 27.2.6 Perfusion bioreactors 27.2.7 Hollow-fiber bioreactors 27.2.8 Microfluidic bioreactors 27.2.9 Combined systems 27.3 Cell-seeding techniques for bioreactors 27.4 Design considerations and future outlook 27.5 Conclusion References Further reading 28 Simulation of organ-on-a-chip systems 28.1 Introduction 28.1.1 General overview 28.1.2 Review of the lung and liver cell line models 28.2 Review of numerical solutions of developed models 28.2.1 Finite-difference method 28.2.2 Finite element modeling 28.3 Modeling of bioreactor for lung cells 28.4 Mathematical modeling of liver cells 28.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Further reading Index Back Cover

Biomaterials for Organ and Tissue Regeneration: New Technologies and Future Prospects examines the use of biomaterials in applications related to artificial tissues and organs. With a strong focus on fundamental and traditional tissue engineering strategies, the book also examines how emerging and enabling technologies are being developed and applied. Sections provide essential information on biomaterial, cell properties and cell types used in organ generation. A section on state-of-the-art in organ regeneration for clinical purposes is followed by a discussion on enabling technologies, such as bioprinting, on chip organ systems and in silico simulations.

• Provides a systematic overview of the field, from fundamentals, to current challenges and opportunities
• Encompasses the classic paradigm of tissue engineering for creation of new functional tissue
• Discusses enabling technologies such as bioprinting, organ-on-chip systems and in silico simulations

__Biomaterials for Organ and Tissue Regeneration: New Technologies and Future Prospects__ examines the use of biomaterials in applications related to artificial tissues and organs. With a strong focus on fundamental and traditional tissue engineering strategies, the book also examines how emerging and enabling technologies are being developed and applied. Sections provide essential information on biomaterial, cell properties and cell types used in organ generation. A section on state-of-the-art in organ regeneration for clinical purposes is followed by a discussion on enabling technologies, such as bioprinting, on chip organ systems and in silico simulations.