Biology of Macrofungi (Fungal Biology)

Mushrooms are fleshy fungi with a high prospective for the production of secondary metabolites including extracellular enzymes with high agricultural and biotechnological significance. Worldwide, they are well recognized as supplementary foods due to their high nutritional values and their medicinal importance, which includes their uses in exhibiting antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, immune enhancer, and to be effective for the treatment of several diseases including diabetes and few types of cancers as well. According to recent studies, extracellular enzymes produced by several white-rot fungal strains such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus sajor-caju and several mushrooms have shown a high capacity to decolorize dyes that are very harmful for the environment. Moreover, wild macrofungi have the capability to synthesize nanoparticles which are more useful for the treatment of cancer, gene therapy, DNA analysis and biosensors. Wild macrofungi are extremely important model for basic biology and commercial manufacture. Dedication Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Exploration of Macrofungi in Sub-Tropical Semi-Evergreen Indian Forest Ecosystems 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 What is a Mushroom? 1.1.2 Why do we need to Explore Mushrooms? 1.2 Exploration of Wild Mushroom Diversity 1.2.1 Macroscopic Identification 1.2.2 Molecular Characterization 1.3 Biodiversity of Mushrooms in two Ecosystems 1.3.1 Dampa Tiger Reserve 1.3.2 Murlen National Park 1.3.3 Diversity of Macrofungi in Dampa Tiger Reserve and Murlen National Park 1.4 Future Prospects References Chapter 2: A Global Overview of Edible Mushrooms 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Ethnomycology 2.3 Common Wild Edible Mushroom 2.4 Nutrional Properties of Edible Mushrooms 2.4.1 Protein 2.4.2 Essential Amino Acids 2.4.3 Fats/ Lipids 2.4.4 Fiber and Carbohydrates 2.4.5 Mineral Composition 2.4.6 Vitamins 2.4.7 Other Aromatic Metabolites 2.5 Hallucinogenic Mushrooms 2.6 Cutivation of Edible Mushroom 2.6.1 Major steps in Mushroom Cultivation References Chapter 3: Molecular Characterization of Wild Mushrooms: A Paradigm Shift from Morphotyping 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Paradigm Shift from Classical to Advanced Molecular Approaches 3.3 Molecular Markers for Identification 3.4 ITS Marker Assisted Identification of Mushrooms 3.5 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Antimicrobial and Hepatoprotective Activities of Edible Mushrooms 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Edible Mushrooms 4.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of the Most Extensively Cultivated Edible Mushroom 4.2.1.1 Antimicrobial Activity of the Agaricus bisporus 4.2.1.2 Antimicrobial Activity of the Lentinula edodes 4.2.1.3 Antimicrobial Activity of the Pleurotus ostreatus 4.2.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Wild Edible Mushrooms 4.3 Hepatoprotective Activity of Edible Mushrooms 4.3.1 Antioxidant Properties of Compounds from Edible Mushrooms and their Hepatoprotective Activity 4.3.2 Effects of Bioactive Compounds Isolated from Edible Mushrooms in Control of Cholesterol and Triglycerides 4.3.3 Hepatoprotective Activity of Edible Mushrooms Against Experimentally Induced Liver Injury 4.3.4 The Edible Mushrooms as Alternative Methods of Hepatitis Treatment and Liver Damage Induced with Path Ogens - Viruses 4.3.5 Clinical Utility of Mushroom Extract in Treatment Liver Diseases 4.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 5: Mushroom-Mediated Protection from Oxidative Damage to DNA 5.1 Introduction 5.2 ROS-Mediated Damage to DNA and the ‘Comet Assay’ 5.3 Mushroom-Derived Preparations in the Prevention of H2O2-induced Oxidative Damage to Cellular DNA 5.4 Mechanisms Operative in Mushroom-Mediated Inhibition of H2O2-induced Oxidative Damage to Cellular DNA 5.5 Protection from Oxidative DNA Damage - Dietary Impact 5.6 Closing Comments References Chapter 6: Chemical and Bioactive Profiling of Wild Edible Mushrooms 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Regulation of Secondary Metabolites Production in Fungi 6.1.2 Main Groups of Bioactive Substances Which Are Occurring in Edible Mushroom 6.1.2.1 Carbohydrates 6.1.2.2 Polysaccharides 6.1.2.3 Chitin 6.1.2.4 Lectins 6.1.2.5 Amino Acids and Proteins 6.1.2.6 Fatty Acids 6.1.2.7 Phenolic Compounds 6.1.2.8 Indole Compounds 6.1.2.9 Enzymes 6.1.2.10 Terpenoids 6.1.2.11 Tocopherols and Steroids 6.1.2.12 Vitamins 6.1.3 Other Compounds of Biological Activity 6.1.3.1 Statins 6.1.3.2 Theanine 6.1.3.3 Agaritine 6.1.3.4 Bioelements 6.1.4 Summary References Chapter 7: Biotechnological Requirements for the Commercial Cultivation of Macrofungi: Substrate and Casing Layer 7.1 Mushroom Growth and Development 7.2 Commercial Mycelium Spawn 7.3 Nutritional Requirements for Cultivated Mushrooms 7.3.1 Substrate Employed in Mushroom Cultivation 7.3.1.1 Preparation of Selective Substrate Through Fermentation 7.3.1.2 Non-composted Materials: Sterilization of Substrates 7.4 Casing Materials 7.5 Conclusions and Perspectivas References Chapter 8: Role of Mushroom Fungi in Decolourization of Industrial Dyes and Degradation of Agrochemicals 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Removal of Textile and Industrial Dyes 8.2.1 Fungal Decolouration Mechanisms 8.2.1.1 Biosorption 8.2.1.2 Decolourization of Dyes by Enzymatic Action Degradation of Azo Dyes by Azo Reductases Degradation of Azo Dyes by Laccase Enzyme Role of Peroxidises in Dyes Degradation 8.3 Degradation of Pesticides and Other Agro Chemicals 8.3.1 Mechanisms Involved in Degradation of Agro Chemicals 8.3.1.1 Enzymatic Mineralization 8.3.1.2 Metal Leaching 8.3.1.3 Metal Bio-sorption 8.3.1.4 Microbial Catalyzed Metal Transformation 8.3.1.5 Precipitation 8.4 Limitations of Using Fungi as Tools of Bioremediation References Chapter 9: Mushrooms: Isolation and Purification of Exopolysaccharides 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Extraction of Exopolysaccharides 9.2.1 Aqueous Extraction 9.2.2 Alkaline Extraction 9.2.3 Acidic Extraction 9.2.4 Pressurized Liquid Extraction 9.2.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 9.2.6 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 9.2.7 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 9.3 Purification of Exopolysaccharides 9.3.1 Freeze–Thawing 9.3.2 Treatment with Solvent 9.3.3 Treatment with Fehling Solution 9.3.4 Closed Dialysis and Ultrafiltration 9.3.5 Column Fractionation References Chapter 10: Novel Prospective of Wild Mushroom Polysaccharides as Potential Prebiotics 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Prebiotic 10.2.1 Criteria for Prebiotic 10.2.2 Mechanism Action 10.2.3 Mushroom-Derived Polysaccharide as Prebiotics 10.2.4 Biological Properties as Prebiotic 10.2.5 Gut Bacteria Protective Effects 10.2.6 Antiobesity Effects 10.3 Gut Health Improvement 10.4 Immunomodulatory Activity 10.5 Potential Applications and Future Perspectives 10.6 Conclusions References Chapter 11: Pharmaceutic Prodigy of Ergosterol and Protein Profile of Ganoderma lucidum 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Ganoderma: Cultivation and Ergosterol 11.3 Ergosterol: Molecular Structure 11.3.1 Biosynthesis of Ergosterol 11.3.2 Determination of Ergosterol: Conventional and Advanced Techniques 11.3.3 Ergosterol Applications 11.3.3.1 Ergosterol: Precursor of Vitamin D 11.3.3.2 Antimycotic Drug Development 11.3.3.3 Elicitor of Plant Immunity 11.3.3.4 Biomedical Applications: Health Benefits 11.3.3.5 Gano-Protein Province: Diversity and Functions Therapeutic/Pharmaceutic Proteins Ganoderma Specific Proteins: Physiological and Developmental Role Hydrophobins 11.4 Future Prospects 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Application of Wild Macrofungi as Anticancer Therapeutics 12.1 The Word Is Out 12.2 Macrofungi and their Uses 12.3 The Need for Anticancer Therapeutics 12.4 Medicinal Mushrooms 12.5 Mechanisms of Action of Mushrooms with Anti-Cancer Properties 12.6 Concluding Remarks: The Way Forward and Challenges Cell Lines References Chapter 13: Recent Advances in Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Global Mushroom Production–An Overview 13.3 Mushrooms as Sources of Nutraceuticals and as Bioremediators 13.4 Recent Trends 13.5 Cultivation Tends of Some of the Cultivated Edible Mushrooms 13.5.1 L. edodes 13.5.2 A. bisporus 13.5.3 Pleurotus spp. 13.5.4 F. velutipes 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Medicinal Mushrooms: Cultivation and Pharmaceutical Impact 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Man, Mushroom and Pharmaceuticals 14.3 Mushroom Cultivation for Food then Medicine 14.4 Brave New World, Solid State Fermentation SSF-Ophiocordyceps sinensis 14.5 Some Fairytale Bliss-Liquid State Fermentation LSF-Ganoderma lucidum 14.6 Rescued from the Brink of Extinction –Sclerotial Technology- Lignosus rhinocerus 14.7 Quality Control and Commercial Claims 14.8 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Biological Control of Microbial Pathogens in Edible Mushrooms 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Mushroom Pests and Diseases 15.3 Biocontrol of Fungal Diseases 15.4 Biocontrol of Bacterial Diseases 15.5 Biological Control of Mushroom Pests 15.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 16: Cordycepin: A Biotherapeutic Molecule from Medicinal Mushroom 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Cordycepin Specifications 16.2.1 Chemical Structure, Molecular and Physical Properties 16.2.2 Codycepin Biosynthesis 16.3 Coducepin: Mechanism of Action 16.3.1 Hinderance of Purine Biosynthesis Pathway 16.3.2 Cordycepin Incites RNA Chain End 16.3.3 Cordycepin Meddles in mTOR Signal Transduction 16.4 Pharmacokinetic of Cordycepin 16.5 Biological Activities of Cordycepin 16.5.1 Antioxidant Activity 16.5.2 Anticancer Activity 16.5.3 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 16.5.4 Hypoglycemic (Anti-Diabetic) Activity 16.5.5 Immunomodulatory and Protective Effects of Codycepin 16.6 Production of Cordycepin 16.6.1 Cultivation Conditions for Cordycepin Production 16.7 Synthesis and Delivery of Cordycepin 16.8 Extraction, Separation, Purification and Determination of Cordycepin 16.9 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles Using Mushrooms 17.1 Introduction 17.2 How Mushroom Derived Inorganic Nanoparticles can be Synthesized? 17.3 Mechanism for Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Mushrooms 17.4 Types of Mushroom Derived Engineered Nanoparticles (ENPs) 17.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 17.4.2 Applications of Mushroom Derived AgNPs 17.4.3 Gold Nanoparticles (Au-NPs) 17.4.4 Applications of Mushroom Derived Gold NPs 17.4.5 Selenium Nanoparticles (Se-NPs) 17.4.6 Applications of Mushroom Derived Selenium NPs 17.4.7 CdS Nanoparticles (Quantum Dots) 17.4.8 Iron Nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) 17.5 Future Prospects References Chapter 18: Bioconversion and Biotransformation Efficiencies of Wild Macrofungi 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Vegetal Biomass Transformation to Value By-Products 18.3 Macrofungi as Decomposers 18.4 Soil Mycoremediation by Wild and Commercial Macrofungi 18.4.1 Peroxidases 18.4.2 Laccase 18.4.3 Catalase 18.4.4 Citocromo P450 18.5 Biodegradation in the Plant-Soil-Microbiota Relationship 18.6 Omics Approaches to Wild Macrofungi References Chapter 19: Wild Macro-Fungi from Northwest Himalayas: Future Prospects and Challenges 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Ethnomycological Studies 19.3 Importance of Wild Edible Mushrooms 19.4 Production and Trade of Wild Edible Mushrooms 19.5 Production and Trade 19.6 Myco-Nutraceuticals Form Wild Edible Mushrooms 19.7 Future Prospects 19.8 Conclusion References Index Mushrooms are fleshy fungi with a high prospective for the production of secondary metabolites including extracellular enzymes with high agricultural and biotechnological significance. Worldwide, they are well recognized as supplementary foods due to their high nutritional values and their medicinal importance, which includes their uses in exhibiting antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, immune enhancer, and to be effective for the treatment of several diseases including diabetes and few types of cancers as well. According to recent studies, extracellular enzymes produced by several white-rot fungal strains such as __Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus sajor-caju__ and several mushrooms have shown a high capacity to decolorize dyes that are very harmful for the environment. Moreover, wild macrofungi have the capability to synthesize nanoparticles which are more useful for the treatment of cancer, gene therapy, DNA analysis and biosensors. Wild macrofungi are extremely important model for basic biology and commercial manufacture.