Biology and Integrated Management of Turfgrass Diseases

Cultivated turfgrass is an assemblage of mown, perennial grasses or prostrate-growing forb plants and a suite of microbes all competing with each other in a common environment. This book approaches turfgrass diseases from an ecological perspective and explains with examples how wild plants and microbes have co-evolved. It addresses the identification, biology and integrated management of both common turfgrass diseases and newly emergent diseases. It includes the common and lesser-known turfgrass species, their surrounding environment and the range of beneficial and pathogenic microbes which in combination explain why disease occurs. For disease identification purposes, fungal diseases are arranged according to their predominantly cool season and warm season occurrence. Turfgrass bacterial and viral diseases, and plant parasitic nematodes are also covered. Written by a team of international authors, it combines technical expertise and practical experience. Essential for anyone involved in managing turfgrass, this book provides the know-how to identify the early warning signs of diseases, in order to manipulate the environment and minimize the damage. Cover Biology and Integrated Management of Turfgrass Diseases Copyright Contents About the Authors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements 1 Turfgrass Ecosystems Abstract Turfgrass Plants Primary grasses Secondary grasses Experimental grasses Mown forbs Physiological Classification, Geographic Origin and Climatic Adaptation Turfgrass Microbiome Turfgrass Pathosystem Diseases in Monoculture versus Polyculture Turfgrass Systems Factors influencing monoculture diseases New-Encounter Turfgrass Pathogens and Diseases Economic Significance of Turfgrass Diseases Disease management versus control Layout of This Book References 2 Environment, Host and Pathogen: Disease Epidemiology Abstract Favourable Environment Phyllosphere Thatch-mat region Rhizosphere Susceptible Host Primary, secondary and reservoir hosts Inherited plant factors Management-induced factors Turfgrass stress as a disease factor Host defence mechanisms: how turfgrasses defend against pathogens Structural mechanisms Phytochemicals Plant disease resistance Phytopathogenic Microbes Host–pathogen relationship Disease pressure Pathogen attack mechanisms: how pathogens infect turfgrass hosts Mechanical Biochemical compounds How invading pathogens disrupt their host Photosynthesis Respiration Transpiration Solute absorption and translocation Plant growth and reproduction Probable Impacts of Climate Change on Turfgrass Diseases References 3 Ecological Groups and the Environment of Turfgrass Microorganisms Abstract Microflora and Microfauna Groups Microbial Lifestyles: Parasitic, Pathogenic and Saprophytic Symbiotic Relationships: Endophyte, Mycorrhizae and Rhizobacteria The Environment of Turfgrass Microbes Temperature Moisture Canopy moisture Leaf wetness Rhizosphere moisture Rootzone oxygen Organic matter accumulation Rootzone pH Host nutrition Hydrophobicity Disease-suppressive soils Solar radiation Wind Turfgrass Disease Cycles Overwintering/oversummering of pathogens Disease Epidemics, Complexes and Succession References 4 Monitoring, Forecasting, Symptomology, Sampling and Diagnosis Abstract Surveillance and Biosecurity Monitoring of Turfgrass Quality and Key Weather Factors Disease Prediction and Forecasting Disease Symptomology Recognition of early, advancing and late-stage symptoms Detection of disease signs Turfgrass Disease Diagnosis Sample collection, preservation, packaging and submission Laboratory diagnostic methodologies Koch’s postulates Understanding and Interpretation of Disease Diagnostic Reports Understanding Turfgrass Disease Trial Data References 5 Genetic, Cultural and Biological Management of Turfgrass Diseases Abstract Disease-Resistant Cultivars Sanitation Primary Cultural Practices Mowing regime Irrigation scheduling Fertilization regime Rolling scheduling Secondary Cultural Practices Consumable Chemical Products Biological Turfgrass Disease Management Options Microbial inoculants Organic amendments and suppressive composts Biofumigation Putting It All Together – Compiling an Integrated Disease Management Plan References 6 Cool-Weather Fungal Diseases of Mown Grasses Abstract Foliage-infecting fungal diseases Downy Mildew Limonomyces-Incited Diseases Pink patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental factors Integrated management Cream leaf blight Causal agent Signs and symptoms Geographic distribution and host range Integrated management Powdery Mildew Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Pythium-Incited Diseases Pythium nomenclature Pythium and related pathogens and their diseases Virulence among Pythium and related species Temperature response among Pythium and related species Cool-weather Pythium diseases Damping-off Signs and symptoms Integrated management of damping-off Pythium crown and root rot Signs and symptoms Pythium spring dead spot Red Thread Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental factors Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Rust and Smut Diseases Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Rusts Smuts Rust and smut disease profile Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Stem- and root-infecting fungal diseases Fairy Ring Formations Edaphic fairy rings Lectophilic fairy rings Fairy ring profile Thatch collapse Biology of intersecting edaphic fairy rings Environmental factors Integrated management Gaeumannomyces-Incited Diseases Take-all patch of cool-season grasses Causal agents and pathogenicity Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant cultivars Microdochium Patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental factors Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Ophiosphaerella-Incited Diseases Spring dead spot Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant cultivars Necrotic ring spot Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Dead spot Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Rhizoctonia- and Waitea-Incited Diseases Rhizoctonia and Waitea nomenclature Rhizoctonia and Waitea pathogens and their diseases Temperature responses among Rhizoctonia/Waitea species Cool-weather Rhizoctonia diseases Large patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range Signs and symptoms Environmental influences Disease profile Disease-resistant varieties Yellow patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and pathogenicity Symptoms Integrated management Root Decline of Warm-Season Grasses Characterization of the causal agents Global distribution and host range Specific root decline diseases of warm-season grasses Bermudagrass decline Fairway patch Summer decline Lesser-known root decline diseases Diagnosis of root decline diseases of warm-season grasses Symptomatology Generalized root decline disease profile Integrated management of root decline diseases Snow Mould Diseases Snow moulds and their causal agents Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Generalized snow mould disease profile Generalized snow mould management Disease-resistant cultivars Cultural practices Lesser-Known, Cool-Weather Fungal Diseases References 7 Warm-Weather Fungal Diseases of Mown Grasses Abstract Foliage-borne fungal diseases Colletotrichum-Incited Diseases Anthracnose on cool-season and warm-season grasses Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Integrated management Causal agents Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant cultivars Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Geographic distribution and host range Copper Spot Dollar Spot Grey Leaf Spot Helminthosporium Group Diseases Bipolaris and Exsorohilum Pyrenophora (Drechslera) Curvularia-incited diseases Curvularia leaf blight Ink spot Signs and symptoms of leaf spot diseases Bipolaris, Curvularia, Exsorohilum and Pyrenophora diseases profile Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Leptosphaerulina Leaf Blight Nigrospora Leaf Blight Lesser-Known, Warm-Weather, Foliage Fungal Diseases Stem- and root-infecting fungal diseases Kikuyu Yellows Magnaporthiopsis-Incited Diseases Summer patch Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Warm-Weather Pythium Diseases Pythium blight Signs and symptoms Environmental influences Pythium root dysfunction Signs and symptoms Key environmental influences of Pythium-incited diseases Generalized Pythium-incited disease profile Integrated management of Pythium-incited diseases Warm-Weather Rhizoctonia- and Waitea-Incited Diseases Brown patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Disease-resistant varieties Brown ring patch Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range Symptoms Disease profile Basal leaf blight Causal agent Host range and pathogenicity Geographic distribution Symptoms Disease profile Leaf and sheath spot Causal agent Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Generalized profile of Rhizoctonia/Waitea diseases General signs and symptoms Generalized integrated management of Rhizoctonia/Waitea diseases Causal agent Geographic distribution Host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental factors Biological management Integrated management Southern Blight References 8 Fungal Diseases of Mown Forbs Abstract Mown Forbs Chamomile Clover Colobanthus Cotula Dichondra Pinto peanut Starweed Fungal Diseases of Mown Forbs Alternaria leaf spot Cercospora leaf spot Fairy ring Gold bracelet disease Geographic distribution, host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Integrated management Leaf rust Phytophthora root rot Rhizoctonia brown patch Rolf’s disease (southern blight) Sclerotinia patch Geographic distribution, host range and susceptibility Signs, symptoms and occurrence Disease profile Integrated management Winter Pythium patch White patch disease References 9 Plant-Pathogenic Bacteria, Primitive Microbes and Viruses Abstract Bacterial and Phytoplasma Diseases Bacterial wilt Distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Bacterial decline Signs and symptoms Bermudagrass white leaf Cyanobacteria and yellow spot disease Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Primitive Foliar- and Root-Infecting Microbes Polymyxa root rot Rapid blight Geographic distribution Host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Disease profile Environmental influences Integrated management Disease-resistant varieties Slime moulds Causal agents Geographic distribution and host range Signs and symptoms Disease profile Viruses and Viral Diseases St. Augustine decline (SAD) Distribution, host range and susceptibility Signs and symptoms Mosaic disease of St. Augustinegrass Centipede grass mosaic disease (CGMD) Mosaic disease of Queensland blue couch Zoysia dwarf virus/mosaic virus Management of Plant-Pathogenic Bacterial, Phytoplasma and Virus Diseases References 10 Plant-Parasitic and Beneficial Nematodes Abstract Significance of Turfgrass-Parasitic Nematodes Nematode Feeding Mechanisms Genera of Turfgrass-Parasitic Nematodes Parasitic Nematode Feeding Groups Economically Important Turfgrass-Parasitic Nematodes Ectoparasitic Sting nematode (Belonolaimus longicaudatus) Southern sting nematode (Ibipora lolii) Stubby-root nematode (Paratrichodorus spp. and Trichodorus spp.) Needle nematode (Longidorus spp. and Paralongidorus spp.) Dagger nematode (Xiphinema spp.) Awl nematode (Dolichodorus spp.) Endoparasitic Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) Lance nematode (Hoplolaimus spp.) Lesion nematode (Pratylenchus spp.) Cyst nematode (Heterodera spp.) False root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchoides spp.) Root-gall nematode (Subanguina radicicola) Foliar nematode parasites Stem-gall nematode (Anguina spp.) Basic Nematode Biology Nematode population dynamics Rootzone texture Temperature and moisture Food quantity and root growth Rhizosphere chemical compounds Antagonistic and parasitic organisms Parasitic nematode–soil-borne fungal interactions Nematode damage thresholds Relative pathogenicity Root-Feeding Nematode Signs and Damage Symptoms Aboveground symptoms Belowground symptoms Confirmation of root-feeding nematodes Systems Approach to Parasitic Nematode Management Surveillance and biosecurity programmes Nematode population monitoring and sampling Nematode-resistant varieties Cultural practices Organic amendments and composts Botanical and arthropod extracts Microbial inoculants and parasitic organisms Nematicides and bionematicides How nematicides and bionematicides work Factors affecting nematicide and bionematicide efficacy Maximizing nematicide and bionematicide efficacy Nematicide resistance and biodegradation References 11 Understanding Turfgrass Protectant Pesticides Abstract Disclaimer Registration of Turfgrass Protectants Turfgrass protectant label nomenclature Turfgrass Protectant Formulations Formulation components How Fungicides and Biofungicides Work Biochemical mode of action Fungicide phytomobility Preventive versus curative strategy Product Application and Placement Foliar application and rootzone targeting Managing foliar application Atmospheric influences Influence of mowing and rolling Managing rootzone placement Maximizing fumigant efficacy Fungicide Tank Mixtures, Compatibility and Synergism Chemistry compatibility testing Fungicide–fungicide synergism Fungicide–plant-growth regulator mixtures Fungicide–fertilizer mixtures Fungicide–nematicide mixtures Generalized tank-mixing guidelines Spray tank water considerations Spray water quality Spray water volume Spray nozzle selection Spray system cleaning Environmental Behaviour and Fates of Turfgrass Protectants Aboveground behaviour and fates Wind drift Volatilization Photodecomposition Foliar absorption Surface runoff Belowground behaviour and fates Stem and root absorption Sorption Chemical and microbial degradation Minimizing fungicide leaching Minimizing fungicide non-target impacts Phytotoxicity Inhibition of beneficial organisms Stimulation of non-target pathogens Enhanced disease resurgence Microbial-enhanced biodegradation Fungicide Resistance in Turfgrass Systems Determination of fungicide resistance Fungicide resistance risk components Pathogen biology Fungicide mode of action Fungicide application regime Cross-resistance and multiple resistance Turfgrass fungicide resistance case studies Anthracnose Dollar spot Grey leaf spot Microdochium patch Pythium blight Fungicide resistance management strategies References Glossary Index Cabi Back Cover Cultivated turfgrass is an assemblage of mown, perennial grasses or prostrate-growing forb plants and a suite of microbes all competing with each other in a common environment. This book approaches turfgrass diseases from an ecological perspective and explains with examples how wild plants and microbes have co-evolved. It addresses the identification, biology and integrated management of both common turfgrass diseases and newly emergent diseases. It includes the common and lesser-known turfgrass species, their surrounding environment and the range of beneficial and pathogenic microbes which in combination explain why disease occurs. For disease identification purposes, fungal diseases are arranged according to their predominantly cool season and warm season occurrence. Turfgrass bacterial and viral diseases, and plant parasitic nematodes are also covered. Written by a team of international authors, it combines technical expertise and practical experience. Essential for anyone involved in managing turfgrass, this book provides the know-how to identify the early warning signs of diseases, in order to manipulate the environment and minimise the damage