Biogeochemistry: Treatise on Geochemistry, Volume 8 (Treatise on Geochemistry)

For the past 3.8 billion years, the geochemistry of the Earth's surface - its atmosphere, waters and exposed crust - has been determined by the presence of biota. Photosynthetic organisms exposed the Earth's surface to oxygen, denitrifying bacteria have maintained the nitrogen concentration in Earth's atmosphere, and land plants have determined the rate of chemical weathering. Life determines the global biogeochemical cycles of the elements of biochemistry, especially C, N, P and S. Volume 8 traces the origin and impact of life on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface, with special emphasis on the current human impact on global biogeochemical cycles.Reprinted individual volume from the acclaimed Treatise on Geochemistry, (10 Volume Set, ISBN 0-08-043751-6, published in 2003) * Comprehensive and authoritative scope and focus* Reviews from renowned scientists across a range of subjects, providing both overviews and new data, supplemented by extensive bibliographies* Extensive illustrations and examples from the field Treatise on Geochemistry......Page 2 Executive Editor's Foreword......Page 3 8.01 The Early History of Life......Page 6 Strangeness and Familiarity---The Youth of the Earth......Page 7 Modeling---The Problem of Taking Fragments of Evidence and Rebuilding the Childhood of the Planet......Page 8 The Power of Biology: The Infinite Improbability Drive......Page 9 Building a Habitable Planet......Page 10 When and Where Did Life Start?......Page 12 The Archean Record......Page 13 The Physical State of the Archean Planet......Page 16 The Surface Environment......Page 18 Origin of Life......Page 19 RNA World......Page 20 The Last Common Ancestor......Page 22 A Hyperthermophile Heritage?......Page 24 Location of Early Biomes......Page 26 Methanogenesis: Impact on the Environment......Page 27 Geological Settings of the Early Biomes......Page 28 The Evolutionary Chain......Page 30 Anoxygenic Photosynthesis......Page 32 Oxygenic Photosynthesis......Page 33 Archean Oxygen......Page 34 The Ancestry of the Eucarya......Page 35 Possible Settings for the Eukaryote Endosymbiotic Event......Page 36 Water and Mud Stirring---Consequences......Page 37 Methane......Page 38 Feedback from the Biosphere to the Physical State of the Planet......Page 39 References......Page 40 Introduction......Page 45 Life and Rocks......Page 46 Mechanisms for Energy Conservation......Page 47 Extant Patterns of Metabolism......Page 49 Kinds of Phototrophs......Page 50 Lithotrophic Energy Sources......Page 51 Carbon Sources for Life......Page 52 Fermentative and Respiratory Metabolism......Page 53 Approaches Employing Genomics and Molecular Genetics......Page 54 Approaches Employing Geochemical and Geophysical Methods......Page 55 Overview......Page 61 References......Page 62 8.03 Sedimentary Hydrocarbons, Biomarkers for Early Life......Page 66 Biomarkers as Molecular Fossils......Page 67 Compound-specific Stable Isotopes......Page 69 Biomarkers as Maturity Indicators......Page 70 The Survival of Biomarkers with Increasing Temperature and Time......Page 71 Experimental approaches to biomarker and kerogen analysis......Page 73 n-Alkanes, Algaenans, and other Polymethylenic Biopolymers......Page 74 Alkyl Cyclohexanes and Cyclopentanes......Page 78 Isoprenoids......Page 79 Carotenoids......Page 82 Chlorophylls and Maleimides......Page 87 Sesquiterpanes (C15) and Diterpanes (C20)......Page 88 Hopanoids and other Pentacyclic Triterpanes......Page 90 Steroid Hydrocarbons......Page 94 Bacteria......Page 97 Archaea......Page 99 Eukarya......Page 100 Marine versus Lacustrine Conditions......Page 102 Paleotemperature and Paleolatitude Biomarkers......Page 103 Biomarkers in the Proterozoic (0.54--2.5Ga)......Page 104 Biomarkers Extracted from Archean Rocks (>2.5 Ga)......Page 105 References......Page 106 8.04 Biomineralization......Page 119 Outline of the Chapter......Page 120 Definitions and General Background on Biomineralization......Page 121 Calcium Carbonates......Page 122 Silica......Page 126 Bioapatite......Page 127 Iron Oxides and Hydroxides......Page 129 Sulfur Biomineralization......Page 131 Iron Biomineralization......Page 133 Carbonate Biomineralization......Page 136 Silica Biomineralization......Page 147 Plant Biomineralization......Page 154 Vertebrate Biomineralization......Page 160 Summary: Why Biomineralize?......Page 174 Chemical or Microbiomineralization Contributions......Page 176 References......Page 177 8.05 Biogeochemistry of Primary Production in the Sea......Page 187 A Primer on Redox Chemistry......Page 188 Chemoautotrophy......Page 189 Selective Forces in the Evolution of Photoautotrophy......Page 190 What are Photoautotrophs?......Page 191 Estimating Chlorophyll Biomass......Page 193 Estimating Net Primary Production......Page 196 Quantum Efficiency of NPP......Page 197 Export, New and ‘‘True New’’ Production......Page 198 Steady-state versus Transient State......Page 199 Nitrification......Page 200 Balance between Net Primary Production and Losses......Page 201 The Two Concepts of Limitation......Page 203 The Evolution of the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 204 Functional Groups......Page 205 Calcium Carbonate Precipitation......Page 206 Vacuoles......Page 207 High-nutrient, Low-chlorophyll Regions-Iron Limitation......Page 208 Linking Iron to N2 Fixation......Page 209 Other Trace-element Controls on NPP......Page 210 References......Page 211 8.06 Biogeochemistry of Terrestrial Net Primary Production......Page 216 What is NPP?......Page 217 The General Biochemistry of NPP......Page 218 The Basic Recipe for Carbon Gain......Page 221 CO2 Limitation......Page 222 Nitrogen Limitation......Page 223 Water Limitation......Page 224 Scaling of Carbon Gain......Page 225 Scaling of Controls over GPP......Page 226 Respiration......Page 228 Photosynthesis, Respiration, and NPP: Who is In Charge?......Page 229 Nutrient Use......Page 230 Nutrient Requirements......Page 231 Limitations by Different Nutrients......Page 232 Stoichiometry of NPP......Page 233 Uncoupling Mechanisms......Page 234 Recoupling Mechanisms......Page 237 Species Effects on Interactive Controls......Page 239 Vegetation Effects on Resources......Page 240 Species Effects on Disturbance Regime......Page 241 Summary......Page 242 References......Page 243 Introduction......Page 249 Composition of Decomposer Resources......Page 251 Roots......Page 252 Secondary Resources......Page 253 Soil Organic Matter......Page 254 Functional Ecology......Page 256 Soil Microorganisms......Page 258 Soil Fauna......Page 261 Interactions......Page 265 Litter Techniques......Page 266 SOM Techniques......Page 267 Detrital Processing......Page 268 Time Course of Litter Decomposition......Page 269 Leaching......Page 271 Catabolism......Page 273 Change in Nutrient Status......Page 278 Priming Effect on Native SOM......Page 280 Selective Preservation......Page 281 Condensation Models......Page 282 Control of Decomposition and Stabilization......Page 283 Decomposer Organisms......Page 284 Resource Quality......Page 288 Soil Characteristics......Page 291 Climate......Page 296 Multiple Constraints......Page 302 Modeling Approaches......Page 303 Conclusions......Page 305 References......Page 306 8.08 Anaerobic Metabolism: Linkages to Trace Gases and Aerobic Processes......Page 317 Overview of Anaerobic Metabolism......Page 319 Syntax of Metabolism......Page 321 Phototroph (Photolithoautotrophy) Diversity and Metabolism......Page 322 Chemotroph (Chemolithoautotrophy) Diversity and Metabolism......Page 324 Decomposition and Fermentation......Page 325 Polymer Degradation......Page 326 Fermentation......Page 328 Methane......Page 332 Methane in the Environment......Page 333 Methanogen Diversity and Metabolism......Page 334 Regulation of Methanogenesis......Page 335 Contributions of Acetotrophy versus Hydrogenotrophy......Page 339 Anaerobic Methane Oxidation......Page 342 Aerobic Methane Oxidation......Page 344 Wetland Methane Emissions and Global Change......Page 348 Nitrogen in the Environment......Page 350 Respiratory Denitrification......Page 351 Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium (DNRA)......Page 357 Alternative Pathways to N2 Production......Page 359 Iron and Manganese in the Environment......Page 362 Iron and Manganese Geochemistry......Page 363 Microbial Reduction of Iron and Manganese......Page 364 Factors that Regulate Fe(III) Reduction......Page 366 Microbial Oxidation of Iron and Manganese......Page 371 Iron Cycling......Page 373 Sulfur Geochemistry......Page 374 Microbial Reduction of Sulfate......Page 375 Taxonomic Considerations......Page 377 Factors Regulating Sulfate Reduction Activity......Page 379 Microbial Reduction of Sulfur......Page 381 Disproportionation......Page 382 Sulfur Gases......Page 383 Microbial Oxidation of Sulfur......Page 386 Evidence of Competitive Interactions......Page 389 Mechanisms of Competition......Page 390 Contributions to Carbon Metabolism......Page 391 References......Page 392 Introduction......Page 425 The Carbon Cycle over Geologic Timescales......Page 426 Timescales of Carbon-cycle Change......Page 434 The Quaternary Record of Carbon-cycle Change......Page 435 Analysis of CO2 and CH4 in Ice Cores......Page 436 Holocene Carbon-cycle Variations......Page 440 Glacial/interglacial Carbon-cycle Variations......Page 444 Mechanisms of Gradual Geologic Carbon-cycle Change......Page 452 Model Simulations of Gradual Geologic Carbon-cycle Change......Page 455 Geologic Evidence for Phanerozoic Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations......Page 457 Abrupt Carbon-cycle Change......Page 459 The Precambrian Record of Carbon-Cycle Change......Page 460 References......Page 461 Introduction......Page 473 Reservoirs......Page 474 The Natural Flows of Carbon......Page 477 Changes Over the Period 1850-2000......Page 480 Changes Over the Period 1980-2000......Page 487 Terrestrial Mechanisms......Page 497 Oceanic Mechanisms......Page 505 Terrestrial......Page 506 Conclusion......Page 507 References......Page 508 Introduction......Page 514 The Oceans......Page 515 Freshwater Environments......Page 518 Photosynthesis......Page 519 Aerobic Cellular Respiration......Page 521 Macroscale Patterns of Aerobic Respiration......Page 522 Mineral Oxidation......Page 523 Iron and Sulfur Oxidation at the Oxic-Anoxic Transition......Page 524 Early Models......Page 525 The Archean......Page 527 The Proterozoic Atmosphere......Page 532 Phanerozoic Atmospheric O2......Page 538 Conclusions......Page 549 References......Page 551 Introduction......Page 555 The Initial Reaction: Nr Creation......Page 557 Atmosphere......Page 558 Nitrogen Reservoirs and Their Exchanges......Page 560 Terrestrial BNF-Natural......Page 561 Anthropogenic......Page 562 Nr Creation Rates from 1860 to 2000......Page 564 Introduction......Page 565 Nr Creation......Page 566 Nr Distribution......Page 567 Nr Conversion to N2......Page 568 Global Marine Nitrogen Budget......Page 569 Regional Nitrogen Budgets......Page 570 Introduction......Page 573 Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 574 Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 575 Future......Page 576 References......Page 578 Introduction......Page 582 The Terrestrial Phosphorus Cycle......Page 584 Transport of Phosphorus from Continents to the Ocean......Page 588 The Marine Phosphorus Cycle......Page 589 Phosphorus Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems and Soils......Page 590 Phosphorus Cycling in Terrestrial Aquatic Systems: Lakes, Rivers and Estuaries......Page 591 Biogeochemistry and Cycling of Phosphorus in the Modern Ocean......Page 594 Phosphorus Cycling Over Long,Geologic Timescales......Page 627 References......Page 630 8.14 The Global Sulfur Cycle......Page 641 Isotopes......Page 642 Chemistry......Page 643 Sulfur in the Cosmos......Page 646 Sulfur on the Early Earth......Page 647 The Geological History of Sulfur......Page 649 Utilization and Extraction of Sulfur Minerals......Page 650 Deep-sea Vents......Page 651 Crater Lakes......Page 652 Origin of Life......Page 653 Sulfur Biomolecules......Page 654 Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 655 Organosulfides......Page 656 Surface and Groundwaters......Page 658 Marine Sediments......Page 659 Soils and Vegetation......Page 660 Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 661 Carbonyl Sulfide......Page 662 Dimethyl Sulfide......Page 663 Dimethylsulfoxide and Methanesulfonic Acid......Page 664 Sulfur Dioxide......Page 665 Deposition......Page 667 Combustion Emissions......Page 668 Acid Rain......Page 669 Water and Soil Pollutants......Page 670 Radiation Balance and Sulfate Particles......Page 671 Aircraft......Page 672 Conclusions......Page 673 References......Page 675 Appendix 1. Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 679 Appendix 2. Table of Isotopes......Page 680 Appendix 3. The Geologic Timescale......Page 684 Appendix 4. Useful Values......Page 685 The Treatise on Geochemistry is the first work providing a comprehensive, integrated summarry of the present state of geochemistry. It deals with all the major subjects in the field, ranging from the chemistry of the solar system to environmental geochemistry. The Treatise on Geochemistry has drawn on the expertise of outstanding scientists throughout the world, creating the reference work in geochemistry for the next decade.

Each volume consists of fifteen to twenty-five chapters written by recognized authorities in their fields, and chosen by the Volume Editors in consultation with the Executive Editors. Particular emphasis has been placed on integrating the subject matter of the individual chapters and volumes.

Elsevier also offers the Treatise on Geochemistry in electronic format via the online platform ScienceDirect®, the most comprehensive database of academic research on the Internet today, enhanced by a suite of sophisticated linking, searching and retrieval tools.
The Treatise on Geochemistry is the first work providing a comprehensive, integrated summarry of the present state of geochemistry. It deals with all the major subjects in the field, ranging from the chemistry of the solar system to environmental geochemistry. The Treatise on Geochemistry has drawn on the expertise of outstanding scientists throughout the world, creating the reference work in geochemistry for the next decade. Each volume consists of fifteen to twenty-five chapters written by recognized authorities in their fields, and chosen by the Volume Editors in consultation with the Executive Editors. Particular emphasis has been placed on integrating the subject matter of the individual chapters and volumes. Elsevier also offers the Treatise on Geochemistry in electronic format via the online platform ScienceDirectʼ, the most comprehensive database of academic research on the Internet today, enhanced by a suite of sophisticated linking, searching and retrieval tools For the past 3.8 billion years, the geochemistry of the Earth's surface - its atmosphere, waters and exposed crust - has been determined by the presence of biota. Photosynthetic organisms exposed the Earth's surface to oxygen, denitrifying bacteria have maintained the nitrogen concentration in Earth's atmosphere, and land plants have determined the rate of chemical weathering. Life determines the global biogeochemical cycles of the elements of biochemistry, especially C, N, P and S. Volume 8 traces the origin and impact of life on the geochemistry of the Earth's surface, with special emphasis on the current human impact on global biogeochemical cycles. Reprinted individual volume from the acclaimed Treatise on Geochemistry, (10 Volume Set, ISBN 0-08-043751-6, published in 2003) v. 1. Meteorites, comets, and planets / volume editor, A.M. Davis v. 2. The mantle and core / volume editor, R.W. Carlson v. 3. The crust / volume editor, R.L. Rudnick v. 4. The atmosphere / volume editor, R.F. Keeling v. 5. Surface and ground water, weathering, and soils / volume editor, J.I. Drever v. 6. The oceans and marine geochemistry / volume editor, H. Elderfield v. 7. Sediments, diagenesis, and sedimentary rocks / volume editor, F.T. Mackenzie v. 8. Biogeochemistry / volume editor, W.H. Schlesinger v. 9. Environmental geochemistry / volume editor, B.S. Lollar v. 10. Indexes. Jenny (1941) applied principles from the physical sciences to the study of soil formation.