Biodiversity in Africa: Potentials, Threats and Conservation (Sustainable Development and Biodiversity, 29)

This edited work brings out a comprehensive collection of information on Potentials, Threats and Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa. The main focus of this book is to address the sustainability of Biodiversity of Africa. Biodiversity are organisms that typically have life and possess the characteristics of living things. The biodiversity is being affected by human activities as well as natural effects. This in turn is affecting the uses of biodiversity which are mainly food and medicine. Therefore it will be useful to point possible means of conserving biodiversity of African so as to enhance the sustainability of their uses especially in Africa. This book is of interest and useful to biodiversity experts, policy makers, conservationists and industries interested in biodiversity conservation of native flora and fauna in the area. It will also be useful to environmental and agricultural scientists, foresters, horticulturists, ecologists, and valuable source of reference to the relevant researchers and students (undergraduate and Post graduate) in the region. Preface Contents Contributors Part I: Introduction Chapter 1: An Overview of the Potentials, Threats and Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Values of Biodiversity in Africa 1.2.1 Economic Value of Biodiversity 1.2.2 Sociocultural Value of Biodiversity 1.2.3 Ecological Value of Biodiversity 1.2.4 Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity 1.2.5 Research and Educational Value of Biodiversity 1.3 Drivers of Biodiversity Loss in Africa 1.4 Towards Sustainability in African Biodiversity Utilization and Conservation 1.5 Conclusion References Part II: Values of Biodiversity Chapter 2: Industrial Applications of Biodiversity Potentials in Africa 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Declination of Biodiversity in Africa with Respect to Sustainable Development Goals 2.2.1 Biodiversity and Sustainable Development Goals 2.2.2 Effect of Biodiversity on Sustainable Development Goals Interactions 2.2.3 Measures-Taking Importance for Accomplishing the Focused Biodiversity of SDGs 14 and 15 2.3 Potentials of Biodiversity in Africa 2.3.1 Scales, Linkages, and Connections 2.3.2 Overcoming Skepticism in Biodiversity Utilization in Agriculture 2.4 Industrial Applications of Biodiversity Potentials in Africa 2.4.1 Pharmacological Bioprospecting 2.4.2 Cosmetics Industries 2.4.3 Biomonitoring 2.4.4 Biomimetics 2.4.5 Bioremediation 2.5 Benefits of Industrial Application of Biodiversity Potentials in Africa 2.5.1 Improved Soil Fertility 2.5.2 Pest Control 2.5.3 Increased Crop and Livestock Production 2.5.4 Increased Crop and Fish Production 2.6 Sustainability of Industrial Applications of Biodiversity Potentials 2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Botanical Gardens: A Reliable Tool for Documenting Sustainability Patterns in Vegetative Species 3.1 Introduction 3.2 History of Botanical Gardens 3.3 Biological Diversity of Plants 3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity in Botanical Gardens 3.4.1 In Situ/Internal Conservation 3.4.2 Ex Situ Conservation 3.5 Role of Botanical Gardens in Sustainability of Vegetative Species 3.5.1 Ecological Restoration 3.5.2 Botanical Gardens ́ Role in Urban Greening 3.5.3 Role of Botanical Gardens in Scientific Research 3.5.4 Recreation and Well-Being of Humans 3.5.5 Botanical Gardens and Biosecurity 3.5.6 Gardens as Bridgeheads for Invasions of Pests 3.5.7 Gardens as Sentinel Sites for Detection and Elimination of Pests 3.5.8 Determination of Pest-Host Range 3.5.9 Public Awareness and Education 3.6 Highlights of Existing and Functioning Botanical Gardens 3.6.1 Regional Distribution of Botanical Gardens 3.6.2 Report on Distribution of Botanic Garden Worldwide 3.6.3 World Best Botanical Gardens 3.6.4 Exquisite Botanical Gardens in Africa 3.6.5 Description of the Listed Botanical Gardens 3.6.6 Categories of Worldwide Botanical Garden Ex Situ Collections 3.7 Herbaria 3.8 Major Challenges Facing Botanical Garden Existence in Africa 3.9 Way Forward on Improving the Botanical Garden Existence in Africa 3.10 Greenhouse System of Gardening 3.11 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Food Security: A Pathway Towards Improved Nutrition and Biodiversity Conservation 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Food Security and Biodiversity 4.1.2 What Is Biodiversity? 4.1.2.1 Variations in Genetic Structure 4.1.2.2 Variations in Species 4.1.2.3 Variations Among the Ecosystem 4.1.3 Importance of Biodiversity 4.1.4 Challenges of Biodiversity 4.1.5 Prescribed Solution to Biodiversity Loss 4.1.6 Advances in Biodiversity Research 4.2 Global Food Security 4.2.1 Food Security and Sustainable Development Goals 4.2.2 Agriculture and Biodiversity Loss 4.3 Plant and Animal Sources of Food 4.3.1 Food of Plant Origin 4.3.1.1 Cultivation 4.3.2 Nutritive Values and Contribution to Well-Being 4.3.3 Socio-Economic Benefits of Foods of Plant Origin 4.3.4 Plant-Based Food and the Environment 4.4 Foods of Animal Origin 4.4.1 Breeding, Processing, and Preservation 4.4.2 Nutritive Values of Foods of Animal Origin 4.4.3 Socio-economic Benefits of Foods of Animal Origin 4.4.4 Foods from Animal Sources and the Environment 4.5 Food Security and Biodiversity Conservation 4.6 Measures to Fight Against Biodiversity Loss 4.6.1 Farming Sustainability 4.6.2 Recognition of Biodiversity 4.7 Biodiversity Friendly Approaches to Food Production and Economic Implications 4.7.1 Biodiversity Friendly Approaches to Food Production 4.7.2 Conservation Agriculture 4.7.3 Organic Agriculture 4.7.4 Integrated Pest Management 4.7.5 Agroforestry 4.7.6 Landscape Management 4.7.7 Sustainable Soil Management 4.7.8 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management 4.8 Food Security and Biodiversity Loss 4.8.1 Economic Implications on Biodiversity 4.9 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Benefits and Threats of Biodiversity Conservation in Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve, Nigeria 5.1 Introduction 5.2 History, Legal Status and Administrative Framework of SCFR 5.3 Description of SCFR 5.4 Biodiversity of SCFR 5.5 Benefits of SCFR and Its Biodiversity 5.6 Threats to the Biodiversity of SCFR 5.6.1 Exotic Nipa Palm Invasion 5.6.2 Oil and Gas Exploration 5.6.3 Expanding Human Settlements 5.6.4 Farming and Land-Use Change 5.6.5 Wood Logging/Lumbering 5.6.6 Wildlife Hunting 5.6.7 Fishing Activities 5.6.8 Wine Tapping and Distilling 5.6.9 Over-Exploitation of Non-timber Products 5.6.10 Poor Waste Management 5.6.11 Infrastructural Development 5.6.12 Flooding and Other Activities 5.7 Conservation Priorities for Stubbs Creek 5.8 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Therapeutic Potentials of Wildlife Resources and Options for Conservation 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Concept of Wildlife Resources 6.3 Wildlife with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.1 Mammals with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.2 Birds with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.2.1 Conservation Strategies for Birds 6.3.3 Amphibians with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.4 Reptiles with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.5 Fishes with Therapeutics Potentials 6.3.5.1 Therapeutic Importance of Fish Healthy Eye and Brain Performance Healthy Bone Maintenance and Cardiovascular Diseases Management Lupus Challenge Rheumatoid Arthritis Psoriasis Challenge Asthma Kidney Disorders Cancers and Diabetes 6.3.5.2 Conservation Strategies of Fish Species Ex Situ Fisheries Resource Conservation: In Situ Fisheries Resource Conservation (Within the Native Environment) 6.4 Factors Affecting the Decline in Wildlife Resources with Therapeutic Potentials 6.4.1 Bush Burning 6.4.2 Bushmeat Trade/Direct Consumption 6.4.3 Climate Change 6.4.4 Habitat Destruction 6.4.5 Excessive Exploitation 6.4.6 Others 6.5 Conservation Strategies of Wildlife Resources with Therapeutics Potentials 6.6 Strategic Approaches to Wildlife Conservation in View of Its Therapeutic Potentials 6.6.1 Colonial Wildlife Management Strategies of Protected Areas 6.6.2 Post-colonial Wildlife Management Strategies of Protected Areas 6.7 Community Conservation Strategy 6.8 Conservation and Sustainability 6.9 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Threats to African Arthropods and Their Biodiversity Potentials on Food Security, Environmental Health and Criminal... 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Causes of Threats to Arthropods Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.1 Habitat Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.2 Agricultural Threats to Arthropods Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.3 Pollution Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.4 Invasive Species Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.5 Over-exploitation of Edible Arthropods Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.2.6 Climate Change Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.3 Effects of Threats to Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.3.1 Collapse of Ecosystem Sustainability 7.3.2 Malnutrition and Poverty 7.3.3 Agricultural Downturn 7.4 Potentials of African Arthropods Biodiversity 7.4.1 Anthophilous Potentials of African Insects in Agricultural Crops and Orchards 7.4.2 Entomophagous Potentials of African Insects Biodiversity in Food and Feed Formulation 7.4.3 Biomonitoring Potentials of African Insects Biodiversity for Monitoring Pollution 7.4.4 Forensic Potentials of African Insects in Medico-criminal Investigation 7.5 Efforts to Salvage Arthropod Biodiversity in Africa 7.6 Conclusion References Part III: Drivers of Biodiversity Loss in Africa Chapter 8: Leaving No One Behind: Impact of Soil Pollution on Biodiversity in the Global South: A Global Call for Action 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Soil Pollutants: Properties, Origins, and Health Consequences 8.3 Ecosystem Pollution in Soils and Its Impacts 8.3.1 Negative Impact of Contaminated Soil on the Terrestrial Ecosystem and the Food Chain 8.3.2 The Effects of Soil Contamination on Aquatic Environments 8.3.3 Socioeconomic Consequences of Soil Pollution 8.4 Worldwide Status and Trends of Soil Contamination: Global South 8.4.1 Transport of Waste and Its Management 8.4.2 Industrial Activities 8.4.3 Mining 8.4.4 Agriculture 8.5 Efforts to Combat Soil Pollution 8.5.1 Governmental and Legal Structures to Address Soil Pollution 8.5.2 Strengthened Monitoring, Reporting, and Knowledge 8.5.3 Contamination and Pollution of Soil Management 8.5.4 Risk Assessment and Identification 8.6 Management of Contaminated Sites 8.7 Contaminated Soils Management 8.7.1 Soils Management as a Pollution Source 8.8 Priority Actions Towards Preventing and Halting Soil Contamination and Polluted Soils Clean-Up 8.9 Future Directions and Conclusions References Chapter 9: The Impact of Unsustainable Exploitation of Forest and Aquatic Resources of the Niger Delta, Nigeria 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Anthropogenic Activities That Impact Species Population in the Niger Delta 9.2.1 Urbanization 9.2.2 Sand Dredging and Mining 9.2.3 Coastal Development 9.2.4 Industrialization 9.2.5 Overexploitation of Resources 9.2.6 Pollution 9.2.7 Invasive Species 9.3 Causes of Overexploitation of Aquatic and Forestry Resources 9.3.1 Ignorance 9.3.2 Poverty 9.3.3 Lack of Regulation of Resource Overexploitation 9.3.4 Unemployment 9.3.5 Pollution 9.4 Environmental Factors That Lead to Population Decline 9.4.1 Inbreeding Depression 9.4.2 Outbreeding Depression 9.4.3 Loss of Genetic Variation 9.4.4 Demographic Stochasticity 9.4.5 Environmental Stochasticity 9.4.6 Allee Effect 9.5 Socioeconomic Factors That Lead to Population Decline 9.6 Regulation and Monitoring of Resource Exploitation 9.7 Mapping of Aquatic and Forest Resources 9.8 Conclusion and Recommendation References Chapter 10: Advantages and Potential Threats of Agrochemicals on Biodiversity Conservation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Ecosystem 10.2.1 Components of the Ecosystem 10.2.2 Ecological Interactions in the Ecosystem 10.2.3 Relationship Between Ecosystem and Human activities 10.3 Agricultural Intensification and the Environment 10.4 Advantages and Potential Threats of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 10.4.1 Advantages of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 10.4.2 Negative Impacts of Agrochemicals on Humans, Animals, and the Environment 10.4.3 Potential Threats of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 10.4.4 Potential Threats of Agrochemicals to Biodiversity Conservation 10.5 Legislation and Laws Regarding the Use of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 10.5.1 Use of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 10.5.2 The Laws and Legislation on Usage of Agrochemicals in Africa 10.5.3 Framework for Analyzing Implementation of Policies on Agrochemicals 10.5.4 World Health Organization Classification of Agrochemicals 10.5.4.1 Ethiopia 10.5.4.2 Botswana 10.5.4.3 Nigeria 10.5.4.4 Zambia 10.5.4.5 Malawi 10.5.4.6 Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Senegal 10.6 Conventional and Organic Farming Practice 10.6.1 Microbial Activity 10.6.2 Plant Nutrient and Nutrition 10.6.3 Nitrogen Levels 10.6.4 Soil Carbon 10.7 Sustainable Solutions to Agrochemicals 10.8 Biodiversity and the Development of Sustainable Organic Farming 10.8.1 Mycorrhiza: A Study Sample 10.9 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Fish Production and Biodiversity Conservation: An Interplay for Life Sustenance 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Fish Production and Food Security 11.2 Threats and Weaknesses in Food Fish Production 11.3 Aquaculture Production Systems 11.4 Systems of Aquaculture 11.4.1 Pond Culture 11.4.2 Cage culture 11.4.3 Pen Culture 11.4.4 Raceway 11.5 The Effects of Aquaculture on Biodiversity 11.6 Mitigation 11.7 Negative Implications of Aquaculture on Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity 11.7.1 Escapement and Genetic Alterations of Wild Stocks 11.7.2 The Effects of Effluents on Water Quality 11.7.3 Sensitive Land Conversion 11.7.4 Inefficient Resource Use 11.7.5 Disease or Parasite Transfer from Captive to Wild Stocks 11.8 Positive Impacts of Aquaculture 11.9 Global Freshwater Fish Biodiversity 11.10 FAO ́s World Major Fishing Areas 11.10.1 Africa Freshwater Fishery and Major Fish Species Composition 11.11 Most Commonly Cultured Freshwater Fish Species in Africa 11.11.1 Nile tilapia and perch 11.11.2 Clarias gariepinus 11.12 Inland Fisheries Production 11.13 Exotic Species Introduction 11.13.1 Ways by Which Exotic Species Affect Native Species 11.13.2 Signs of Invasiveness Possibility 11.13.3 Characteristics Making a Region Vulnerable to Biological Invasions 11.13.4 Inadvertent (Accidental) Introductions 11.13.5 Deliberate Introductions 11.13.6 Challenges to Global Fish Introductions 11.14 Impacts of Exotic Fish Species 11.14.1 Impacts of Introduced Species 11.14.1.1 Ecological Impacts 11.14.1.2 Genetic Impacts 11.14.1.3 Socioeconomic Impacts 11.15 Efforts to Regulate Introductions at the International and National Levels 11.15.1 Institutions Responsible for Monitoring of Exotic Aquatic Species 11.15.2 Suggested Strategies to Be Followed While Introducing Exotic Fish Species 11.16 Conservation of Inland Fish Biodiversity 11.17 Factors Affecting Fish Diversity 11.17.1 Habitat Destruction 11.17.2 Over-Exploitation 11.17.3 Wanton Destruction 11.17.4 Aquatic Pollution 11.17.5 Diseases 11.17.6 Genetic Problems in Threatened Species 11.18 Strategies for Fish Biodiversity Conservation 11.18.1 In Situ Conservation 11.18.2 Ex Situ Conservation 11.18.3 Live Gene Banks 11.18.4 Tissue Preservation 11.18.5 Breeding in Captivity 11.18.6 Aqua Ranching 11.18.7 Biomass Conservation 11.18.8 Translocation 11.18.9 Control of Exotic Fishes 11.18.10 Sustainability in Fish Harvest 11.18.11 Implementation of Closed Seasons 11.18.12 Habitat Restoration 11.18.13 Mass Awareness 11.18.14 Geographic Information System 11.19 The Interplay: Is There a Way Forward? 11.20 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Impact of Pharmaceutical Compounds on the Microbial Ecology of Surface Water Resources 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Pharmaceutical Compounds as Emerging Contaminants 12.3 Pharmaceutical Sources and Pathways in the Environment 12.3.1 Primary and Secondary Sources 12.3.2 Pathways of Excretion 12.4 Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in Aquatic Environment 12.5 Microbial Ecology of Surface Water 12.5.1 Microbial Evolution 12.5.2 Microbial Diversity and Ecosystem Functions 12.6 Impacts of Pharmaceuticals on the Microbial Ecology of the Aquatic Environment 12.6.1 Impacts of Antibiotic Contaminants on the Microbial Ecology of the Surface Water 12.6.2 Impacts of Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs on the Microbial Ecology of the Surface Water 12.6.3 Impacts of Antidepressants on the Microbial Ecology of the Surface Water 12.7 Protection of Surface Water Against Pharmaceutical Compounds 12.8 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Effects of Water Pollution on Biodiversity Along the Coastal Regions 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Resources and Uses of Coastal regions 13.1.2 Sources of Water 13.1.3 Importance of Water 13.1.4 System of Farming 13.1.5 Indigenous Way of Disinfecting Water 13.1.6 Water Pollution and Impacts on Climate 13.2 Coastal Regions and Anthropogenic Activities 13.2.1 Transportation in the Ports and Marine Environment 13.2.2 Waste Disposal 13.2.3 Urban Settlement 13.3 Human Anthropogenic Activities Along the Coastal Region 13.3.1 Some Profound Anthropogenic Activities 13.3.1.1 Dredging/Land Reclamation 13.3.1.2 Oil Mining 13.3.1.3 Aquaculture 13.3.1.4 Agriculture 13.4 Water Pollution and Biodiversity 13.4.1 What Is Coastal Water Pollution? 13.4.2 Importance of Biodiversity 13.4.3 Case Studies on Coastal Water Pollution and Biodiversity 13.4.4 Threats to Coastal Biodiversity 13.4.4.1 Water Pollution 13.4.4.2 Climate Change 13.4.4.3 Exotic Species Invasion 13.4.4.4 Degradation of Habitat 13.4.4.5 Modification of Water Flow 13.5 Coastal Ecological Communities and Biodiversity Loss 13.5.1 Stability of Ecosystem Processes and Biodiversity Functions in Coastal Regions 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Impacts of Climate Change on Aquatic Biodiversity in Africa 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Aquatic Biodiversity 14.2.1 Aquatic Biodiversity and Sustainable Development Goals 14.2.2 Aquatic Ecosystem and Sustainable Development Goals 14.2.3 Aquatic Biodiversity and Sustainability 14.2.4 Challenges of Biodiversity 14.3 The Climate Change Concept 14.3.1 Causes of Climate Change 14.3.2 Natural Causes of Climate Change 14.3.2.1 Changes in Earth ́s Orbit and Its Rotation 14.3.2.2 Solar Activity Variations 14.3.2.3 The Human Causes of Climate Change 14.4 Climate Change in Africa 14.5 Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Systems 14.5.1 Rise in Sea Level 14.5.2 Increased Salinity 14.5.3 Floods 14.5.4 Drought 14.5.5 Effect on Water Supply and Quality Leading to National Security Issues 14.5.6 Change in Rainfall Pattern 14.6 Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity 14.6.1 Effects on Fish Species 14.6.1.1 Coral Bleaching 14.6.1.2 Sea Warming 14.6.2 Effects on the Environment 14.6.2.1 Agriculture and Food Security 14.6.2.2 Change in Distributions Pattern 14.6.3 Effect on Health of Human Beings 14.6.4 Ecosystem Effects 14.6.5 Effects on Vulnerable Population 14.6.6 Effect on Tourism 14.7 Conservative Strategies of Fish Species to Climate Change 14.7.1 Adaptive Strategies 14.8 Climate Change and Ecosystem Services 14.8.1 Responses of Biodiversity 14.8.1.1 Shifts in Species Distribution 14.8.1.2 Demographic Responses 14.8.1.3 Phenological Shifts Response 14.9 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Anthropogenic Restructuring of Fiddler Crabs (Uca tangeri) Communities: A Solid Wastes Perspective 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Biology of Fiddler Crabs (Uca tangeri) 15.2.1 Morphology of Fiddler Crabs (Uca tangeri) 15.2.2 Reproduction 15.2.3 Food and Feeding Habits 15.2.4 Excretion in Fiddler Crabs 15.2.5 Circulatory System and Respiration in Crabs 15.2.6 Nervous System 15.3 Habitat and Ecology of Fidler Crabs 15.4 Roles of Fiddler Crabs in their Ecosystem 15.5 Anthropogenic Activities 15.6 Solid Wastes and the Aquatic Environment (Intertidal Zone) 15.7 Anthropogenic Impacts and Effects of Solid Wastes on Fiddler Crab Population and Habitats 15.7.1 Conservation and Sustainability of Uca tangeri 15.8 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Aquatic Biodiversity Loss: Impacts of Pollution and Anthropogenic Activities and Strategies for Conservation 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Sources of Water Pollution 16.3 Aquatic Pollution and Biodiversity 16.4 Importance of Biodiversity 16.5 The Main Threats to Biodiversity 16.5.1 Climate Change 16.5.1.1 Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity 16.5.2 Pollution 16.5.2.1 Impact of Pollution on Biodiversity 16.5.3 Overexploitation 16.5.3.1 Impact of Overexploitation on Biodiversity 16.5.4 Invasion by Exotic Species 16.5.5 Habitat Degradation 16.5.5.1 Impact of Habitat Degradation on Biodiversity 16.6 Effects of Anthropogenic Factors on Water Quality 16.6.1 Industrial Applications 16.6.2 Solid and Liquid Wastes 16.6.3 Mining Processes 16.6.4 Agricultural Practices 16.6.4.1 Pesticides 16.6.4.2 Fertilisers 16.6.5 Urbanisation 16.6.5.1 Municipal Wastes 16.6.5.2 Livestock Productions 16.6.5.3 Land Use Practices 16.7 Biodiversity Loss and Common Species 16.8 Conservation of Biodiversity 16.8.1 In-Situ Conservation 16.8.2 Ex-Situ Conservation 16.8.3 Cost Efficiency Plans for Conservation 16.8.4 Recommendation 16.9 Conclusion References Part IV: Trends, Scenarios and Governance in Relation to Biodiversity Conservation Chapter 17: Traditional Methods of Plant Conservation for Sustainable Utilization and Development 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Guiding Principles for Plant Conservation and some Modern Plant Conservation Practices 17.3 Traditional System of Plant and Natural Resource Conservation 17.4 Challenges and Threats to Traditional Methods of Plant Conservation and Utilization 17.5 Benefits of Complementary Approach to Plant Conservation 17.6 Recommendations 17.7 Conclusion References Chapter 18: The Challenges and Conservation Strategies of Biodiversity: The Role of Government and Non-Governmental Organizati... 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Review of Literature on Biodiversity Crisis 18.3 Biodiversity Inventory 18.4 Loss of Biodiversity in Nigeria 18.5 What Is the Definition of Conservation? 18.6 Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation 18.7 Understanding Biodiversity Direct Pressures 18.7.1 Degradation and Habitat Change 18.7.2 Overexploitation 18.7.3 Pollution 18.7.4 Exotic Species Introduced and Invasions 18.7.5 Climate Change 18.8 Protected Areas System and Conservation Infrastructure 18.9 The Biodiversity Nature and the Issues it Causes 18.10 The Role of Government at all Levels in Biodiversity Conservation 18.10.1 At the National/Federal Government Level 18.10.2 At the State Government Level 18.10.3 At the Local Government Level 18.10.4 The Non-Governmental Organization 18.11 Constraints and Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation 18.12 Future Directions 18.13 Conclusion References Chapter 19: ``Let Them Eat Their Declarations ́ ́: Interrogating Natural Resource-Rich States ́ Inertia Towards Biodiversity Cons... 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Rentier State Theory 19.3 Declarations on Biodiversity and Their Accountability Gaps in SSA 19.4 Explaining the Ruse in Biodiversity Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) 19.4.1 The Rentier Character of Africa ́s Mineral-Rich States and Fate of Biodiversity 19.4.2 Oil Transnational Corporations and Biodiversity Loss 19.4.3 External Interests in Resources and Biodiversity Loss 19.4.4 Armed Conflicts, Peacetime and Biodiversity Loss 19.5 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Sacred Groves in the Global South: A Panacea for Sustainable Biodiversity Conservation 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Origin and Historical Perspectives of Sacred Groves in the Global South 20.3 Some Challenges Facing Sacred Groves: Disappearance of Sacred Groves in the Global South 20.4 Traditional Practices that Protect the Sacredness of Sacred Groves 20.5 Ecological Relevance of Sacred Groves 20.6 Roles of Sacred Groves in Biodiversity Conservation 20.7 Contemporary Approach to Biodiversity Conservation in the Global South that Integrates the Efforts and Systems of Sacred ... 20.8 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Forest Conservation Strategies in Africa: Historical Perspective, Status and Sustainable Avenues for Progress 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The African Forest: Biodiversity Richness and Diversity 21.3 Phytogeography of the African Forests 21.3.1 The Guinea-Congo Region 21.3.2 The Sudan-Zambezian Region 21.3.3 The Afromontane Region 21.3.4 East Malagasy Region 21.4 Historical Perspectives of Forest Conservation in Africa 21.5 Current Approaches to Forest Conservation in Africa 21.6 Actual and Emerging Benefits of the African Forests 21.6.1 African Forest Is a Source of Revenue 21.6.2 Africa ́s Forests Are a Storehouse for Medicine 21.6.3 Prevent Diseases Outbreaks 21.6.4 Africa ́s Forests Are Critical for Mitigating the Impact of Climate Change 21.6.5 African Forest Sustains Traditional and Cultural Practices 21.6.6 A Resource Tool for Science 21.7 Threats to Forest Conservation in Africa 21.7.1 High Rates of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Africa 21.7.2 Lack of Proper Monitoring of Invasive Alien Species 21.7.3 Occurrence of Adverse Events Like Fire 21.7.4 Poor Management Strategy of the Concerned Authority 21.7.5 African Agriculture and Food Production System 21.7.6 Unemployment and Poverty Index 21.7.7 Over- and Unsustainable Harvesting of Forest Resources 21.8 Towards an Optimal Conservation Strategy for the African Forests 21.9 Recommendations 21.10 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Factors Militating Against Biodiversity Conservation in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: The Way Out 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Threat Factors of Biodiversity in the Niger Delta 22.2.1 Population Growth and Urbanization 22.2.2 Anthropogenic Activities 22.2.2.1 Slash-and-Burn Method of Preparing Farmlands for Cultivation 22.2.2.2 Unbridled Logging Without Replacement Culture 22.2.2.3 Fuelwood Extraction and Trade 22.2.2.4 Gathering and Trading on Non-Timber Products (NTPs) 22.2.2.5 Overexploitation of Fisheries and Degradation of Spawning Grounds 22.3 Mechanisms of Biodiversity Loss 22.3.1 Habitat Destruction 22.3.2 Adverse Changes or Alterations in Abiotic and Biotic Environments Due to Environmental Pollution 22.3.3 Overexploitation of Selected Species 22.3.4 Habitat Fragmentation 22.3.5 Exotic Species 22.3.5.1 Ecological Impacts 22.3.5.2 Economic Impacts 22.3.5.3 Example of Exotic Species 22.3.6 Natural/Ecological Disasters 22.3.7 Global Warming/Climate Change 22.3.8 Improper Waste Disposal 22.3.9 Overhunting and Trapping of Wildlife 22.3.10 Traditional/Cultural Practices 22.4 Petroleum Industry Activities 22.4.1 Impact of Onshore Seismic Exploration 22.5 Impact of Gas Flaring 22.5.1 Impact of Pipeline Construction and Operation 22.6 Causes of Pipeline Vandalism and Explosion in Nigeria 22.6.1 Complacent Attitude of some Pipeline Operators 22.6.2 Economic Status and Emotional State of Host Communities 22.6.3 Patronage of the Vandals ́ Bounty 22.7 Consequences of the Pipeline Vandalism and Explosion 22.8 Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Effect 22.8.1 Impact of Oil Spill on Biodiversity 22.8.2 Impact of Refinery on Biodiversity 22.9 Recommendation: The Way Forward 22.10 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Challenges of Biodiversity Conservation in Africa: A Case Study of Sierra Leone 23.1 Introduction 23.1.1 Status of Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Leone 23.1.2 Forest Biodiversity of Sierra Leone 23.1.3 Coastal Biodiversity of Sierra Leone 23.2 Biodiversity Conservation Benefits in Sierra Leone 23.2.1 Biodiversity Contribution to the Gross Domestic Products of Sierra Leone 23.2.2 Biodiversity Contribution to Rural Livelihood 23.2.3 Biodiversity Contribution to Food in Sierra Leone 23.3 Biodiversity Conservation Threats and Challenges 23.3.1 Conventional Farming Method Threats to Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Leone 23.3.2 Population Growth as a Threat to Biodiversity 23.3.3 Mineral Mining Threats to Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Leone 23.3.4 Illegal Poaching 23.3.5 Civil War and Biodiversity Decline in Sierra Leone 23.3.6 Poverty and Threats to Biodiversity Conservation 23.3.7 Wildfire Outbreak Threats to Biodiversity in Sierra Leone 23.3.8 Food Security and Pet Trade Threats to Biodiversity 23.3.9 Climate Change Threats to Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Leone 23.3.10 Land Use and Urbanization 23.3.11 Fuelwood and Charcoal Burning Impact on Biodiversity in Sierra Leone 23.3.12 Timber Logging Impact on Biodiversity Conservation in Sierra Leone 23.4 Biodiversity Conservation Legal Instrument Instituted in Sierra Leone 23.5 The Way Forward in Conserving and Maintaining Biodiversity Abundance in Sierra Leone 23.5.1 Conclusion 23.5.2 Recommendations References Index