Biodeterioration of Wooden Cultural Heritage : Organisms and Decay Mechanisms in Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems

Since prehistoric times and throughout the course of human evolution, wood has been an integral part of all civilizations. Wooden Cultural Heritage can be found worldwide, providing valuable information on the social and economic context of human history. Nonetheless, as a natural cellulosic material, wood shows low resistance to biodeterioration and thus wooden Cultural Heritage often fails to escape decomposition in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This book provides a comprehensive overview on the biodeterioration of wooden Cultural Heritage and describes the decay mechanisms of key organisms and microorganisms encountered in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Cultural Heritage professionals, researchers and academics may explore within this book the associations between deteriogens, habitats and decay, which will assist them to understand wood biodeterioration and design effective prevention, mitigation and remediation strategies. The book presents case studies around the world to demonstrate the impact of biogenic deterioration on wooden Cultural Heritage and illustrates mechanisms and patterns in order to be a useful handbook of decay diagnosis. Lastly, by adopting a holistic approach to wood decay, basic concepts of wood technology, ecology, and deteriogens' biology are introduced, permitting readers of different scientific backgrounds to easily comprehend wood biodeterioration. Preface Acknowledgments Contents Abbreviations Chapter 1: Wood Anatomy, Chemistry and Physical Properties 1.1 Elements of Botany 1.2 Xylem Development 1.3 Xylem Cell Types 1.4 Softwoods and Hardwoods Ultrastructure 1.5 Macroscopic Characteristics 1.6 Wood Chemistry 1.6.1 Cellulose 1.6.2 Hemicelluloses 1.6.2.1 Xylans 1.6.2.2 Mannans 1.6.2.3 Xyloglucans 1.6.2.4 Galactans 1.6.2.5 Softwoods and Hardwoods Hemicelluloses ́ Composition 1.6.3 Pectins 1.6.4 Other Glucans 1.6.5 Lignin 1.6.6 The Cell Wall Chemistry 1.6.7 Non-structural Components of Wood 1.7 Physical Properties of Wood 1.7.1 Hygroscopicity 1.7.2 Shrinkage and Swelling 1.7.3 Density 1.8 Mechanical Properties of Wood References Chapter 2: Ecology and the Biodeterioration Environment 2.1 Basic Concepts of Ecology 2.2 Classification of Natural Ecosystems 2.3 Terrestrial Ecosystems 2.3.1 Forests 2.3.1.1 Boreal Forests 2.3.1.2 Temperate Forests 2.3.1.3 Tropical Forests 2.3.2 Grasslands 2.3.3 Deserts 2.3.4 Tundras 2.4 Aquatic Ecosystems 2.4.1 Seas and Oceans 2.4.1.1 The Pelagic Environment 2.4.1.2 The Benthic Environment Grain Size and Sorting Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) 2.4.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 2.4.2.1 Lakes 2.4.2.2 River and Stream Ecosystems 2.4.2.3 Wetlands Hydrology Soil Vegetation References Chapter 3: Biology of Wood Deteriogens 3.1 Wood Deteriogens 3.2 Prokaryotes 3.2.1 Bacteria 3.2.2 Archaea 3.3 Prokaryotes Involved in Wood Deterioration 3.4 Fungi 3.4.1 Chytridiomycota 3.4.2 Blastocladiomycota 3.4.3 Neocallimastigomycota 3.4.4 Glomeromycota 3.4.5 Cryptomycota 3.4.6 Microsporidia 3.5 Fungi Involved in Wood Deterioration 3.5.1 Ascomycota 3.5.2 Basidiomycota 3.5.3 Zygomycetes 3.6 Marine Borers 3.6.1 Molluscs 3.6.2 Crustaceans 3.7 Marine Borers Involved in Wood Deterioration 3.7.1 Bivalvia 3.7.2 Malacostraca 3.8 Insects 3.9 Insects Involved in Wood Deterioration 3.9.1 Coleoptera 3.9.2 Blattodea (Termitoidae) 3.9.3 Hymenoptera 3.9.4 Lepidoptera 3.9.5 Ephemeroptera 3.9.6 Diptera References Chapter 4: Wood Deterioration by Aquatic Microorganisms 4.1 Bacteria 4.2 Bacteria Destroying Pit Membranes 4.3 True Wood Degrading Bacteria 4.3.1 Erosion Bacteria 4.3.1.1 Erosion Bacteria and Cultural Heritage Wood 4.3.1.2 Niche 4.3.1.3 Biology 4.3.1.4 Chemistry of Decay 4.3.1.5 Mechanism of Decay 4.3.1.6 Features and Decay Patterns of Erosion Bacteria 4.3.2 Tunnelling Bacteria 4.3.2.1 Tunnelling Bacteria and Cultural Heritage Wood 4.3.2.2 Niche 4.3.2.3 Biology 4.3.2.4 Chemistry of Decay 4.3.2.5 Mechanisms of Decay 4.3.2.6 Features and Decay Patterns of Tunnelling Bacteria 4.3.3 Cavitation Bacteria 4.3.3.1 Cavitation Bacteria and Cultural Heritage Wood 4.3.3.2 Niche 4.3.3.3 Biology 4.3.3.4 Chemistry of Decay 4.3.3.5 Mechanisms of Decay 4.3.3.6 Features and Decay Patterns of Cavitation Bacteria 4.4 Aquatic Fungi 4.4.1 Soft Rot 4.4.1.1 Soft Rot and Cultural Heritage Wood 4.4.1.2 Niche 4.4.1.3 Biology 4.4.1.4 Chemistry of Decay 4.4.1.5 Mechanisms of Decay 4.4.1.6 Features and Decay Patterns of soft rot References Chapter 5: Wood Deterioration by Marine Borers 5.1 Marine Borers 5.2 Marine Borers and Cultural Heritage Wood 5.3 Molluscs 5.3.1 Teredinidae 5.3.1.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.3.1.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.3.1.3 Distribution and Niche 5.3.1.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.3.2 Pholadidae 5.3.2.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.3.2.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.3.2.3 Distribution and Niche 5.3.2.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.3.3 Xylophagaidae 5.3.3.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.3.3.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.3.3.3 Distribution and Niche 5.3.3.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.4 Crustaceans 5.4.1 Limnoriidae 5.4.1.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.4.1.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.4.1.3 Distribution and Niche 5.4.1.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.4.2 Sphaeromatidae 5.4.2.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.4.2.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.4.2.3 Distribution and Niche 5.4.2.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.4.3 Cheluridae 5.4.3.1 Introduction and Systematics 5.4.3.2 Morphology and Physiology 5.4.3.3 Distribution and Niche 5.4.3.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 5.5 Cohabitation of Borers References Chapter 6: Wood Deterioration by Terrestrial Microorganisms 6.1 Bacteria 6.2 Terrestrial Fungi 6.2.1 Brown Rot 6.2.1.1 Brown Rot in Cultural Heritage Wood 6.2.1.2 Biology 6.2.1.3 Niche 6.2.1.4 Chemistry of Decay 6.2.1.5 Mechanisms of Decay A Six-Step Mechanism 6.2.1.6 The Ultrastructure of Brown-Rot Decay 6.2.1.7 Features and Decay Patterns Macroscopic Diagnostic Features Microscopic Diagnostic Features Decay Patterns 6.2.2 White Rot 6.2.2.1 White Rot and Cultural Heritage wood 6.2.2.2 Biology 6.2.2.3 Niche 6.2.2.4 Chemistry of Decay Simultaneous Delignification Preferential Delignification 6.2.2.5 Mechanism of Decay Simultaneous Rot Preferential Rot 6.2.2.6 The Ultrastructure of White-Rot Decay Simultaneous Rot Preferential Rot 6.2.2.7 Features and Decay Patterns Macroscopic Diagnostic Features Decay Patterns Simultaneous rot Preferential rot References Chapter 7: Wood Deterioration by Insects 7.1 Wood-Destroying Insects 7.2 Insects Damaging Cultural Heritage Wood 7.3 Coleoptera 7.3.1 Anobiidae 7.3.1.1 Introduction and Systematics 7.3.1.2 Morphology and Physiology 7.3.1.3 Distribution and Niche 7.3.1.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 7.3.2 Ptinidae 7.3.2.1 Introduction and Systematics 7.3.2.2 Morphology and Physiology 7.3.2.3 Distribution and Niche 7.3.2.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 7.3.3 Bostrichidae 7.3.3.1 Introduction and Systematics 7.3.3.2 Morphology and Physiology 7.3.3.3 Distribution and Niche 7.3.3.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 7.3.4 Cerambycidae 7.3.4.1 Introduction and Systematics 7.3.4.2 Morphology and Physiology 7.3.4.3 Distribution and Niche 7.3.4.4 Wood Boring and Feeding 7.4 Blattodea 7.4.1 Termitoidae 7.4.1.1 Introduction and Systematics 7.4.1.2 Morphology and Physiology 7.4.1.3 Distribution and Niche 7.4.1.4 Wood Boring and Feeding References Index