Bioarchaeology of Women and Children in Times of War : Case Studies From the Americas

This volume will examine the varied roles that women and children play in period of warfare, which in most cases deviate from their perceived role as noncombatants. Using social theory about the nature of sex, gender and age in thinking about vulnerabilities to different groups during warfare, this collection of studies focuses on the broader impacts of war both during warfare but also long after the conflict is over. The volume will show that during periods of violence and warfare, many suffer beyond those individuals directly involved in battle. From pre-Hispanic Peru to Ming dynasty Mongolia to the Civil War-era United States to the present, warfare has been and is a public health disaster, particularly for women and children. Individuals and populations suffer from displacement, sometimes permanently, due to loss of food and resources and an increased risk of contracting communicable diseases, which results from the poor conditions and tight spaces present in most refugee camps, ancient and modern. Bioarchaeology can provide a more nuanced lens through which to examine the effects of warfare on life, morbidity, and mortality, bringing individuals not traditionally considered by studies of warfare and prolonged violence into focus. Inclusion of these groups in discussions of warfare can increase our understanding of not only the biological but also the social meaning and costs of warfare. Dedication 5 Foreword 6 Contents 8 Contributors 10 About the Editors 12 Chapter 1: The Bioarchaeology of Women, Children, and Other Vulnerable Groups in Times of War 13 Introduction 13 Volume Focus and Organization 20 References 24 Chapter 2: Shattered Mirrors: Gender, Age, and Westernized Interpretations of War (and Violence) in the Past 27 Introduction 27 Using Modern Terminology and Concepts, and Interpreting Meaning in the Past 29 A Brief Note on Scope and Scale 31 Engendering the Past and Deciphering Intersections in Forms of Violence 33 Why the Continuum of Violence Might Be Problematic: Taking a Cautionary Stance 35 Conclusion 36 References 36 Chapter 3: War at the Door: Evolutionary Considerations of Warfare and Female Fighters 39 Introduction 39 Combatants and Battlefields: Binary Structures and the People and Places of War 41 Case Study: Morton Village and the Norris Farms #36 Cemetery 43 Village Life 43 Osteological and Mortuary Data 47 Discussion 54 Conclusion 56 References 57 Chapter 4: Politics and Social Substitution in Total War: Exploring the Treatment of Combatants and Noncombatants During the Mississippian Period of the Central Illinois Valley 61 Introduction 61 Mississippian Chiefdoms and War 62 The Central Illinois Valley 65 Methods 67 Results 69 Sample Demography 69 Warfare-Related Trauma and Victim Interment 70 Discussion and Conclusion 72 References 75 Chapter 5: When Elites Wage War: Violence and Social Coercion Along the Chaco Meridian 82 Introduction 82 Women and Children as Noncombatants 83 Background to Study Area 84 Chaco Canyon 85 Aztec Ruins 86 Paquimé 87 Evidence of Violence in the American Southwest 88 Data Set/Sample 89 Chaco Canyon 90 Aztec Ruins 90 Paquimé 91 The Effects of Warfare on Noncombatants 91 Chaco Canyon 92 Aztec Ruins 95 Paquimé 95 Conclusions 97 References 98 Chapter 6: Caught in a Cataclysm: Effects of Pueblo Warfare on Noncombatants in the Northern Southwest 103 Introduction 103 Background to Study Area 104 Evidence of Violence in the Northern Southwest 109 The Data Set 109 Detecting the Effects of Warfare on the Vulnerable 111 Conclusions 114 References 116 Chapter 7: The Poetics of Annihilation: On the Presence of Women and Children at Massacre Sites in the Ancient Southwest 121 Introduction 121 Background 123 Evidence for the Massacre of Women and Children 126 Sacred Ridge 126 Demography and Violence 127 Mancos Canyon 128 Demography and Violence 129 Awat’ovi/Polacca Wash 130 Demography and Violence 131 Massacres are Different from Warfare 132 Conclusions 133 References 136 Chapter 8: Army Health Care for Sable Soldiers During the American Civil War 139 Introduction 139 The American Civil War: Background and Attitudes Toward African Americans 140 Materials and Methods 142 The Regiments 142 Results 145 The Effects of War, Federal Policy, and Structural Violence on Sable Soldiers in the Civil War 145 Conclusion 155 References 156 Chapter 9: Potential Applications of Public Health Tools to Bioarchaeological Data Sets: The “Dirty War Index” and the Biological Costs of Armed Conflict for Children 159 Introduction 159 Background 164 The Biological Costs of War for Civilians 164 The Dirty War Index 165 Calculating the Dirty War Index 165 Issues Involved in the Use of the Dirty War Index 166 Applications of the Dirty War Index to Modern Armed Conflict 167 The Syrian Civil War (2011–Ongoing) 167 Potential Applications of the Dirty War Index to Bioarchaeological Skeletal Samples and Data Sets 169 Assessing Harm to Civilian Children in the Past 171 Case Study: Bioarchaeological Applications of the DWI 174 The Mountain Meadows Massacre 174 Background 174 Materials and Methods 175 Results and Discussion 178 Conclusion 181 References 182 Chapter 10: Conclusion: The Deeper You Dig, the Dirtier It Gets 186 Future Directions and Research 190 References 190 Index 192 This Volume Will Examine The Varied Roles That Women And Children Play In Period Of Warfare, Which In Most Cases Deviate From Their Perceived Role As Noncombatants. Using Social Theory About The Nature Of Sex, Gender And Age In Thinking About Vulnerabilities To Different Groups During Warfare, This Collection Of Studies Focuses On The Broader Impacts Of War Both During Warfare But Also Long After The Conflict Is Over. The Volume Will Show That During Periods Of Violence And Warfare, Many Suffer Beyond Those Individuals Directly Involved In Battle. The Bioarchaeology Of Women, Children, And Other Vulnerable Groups In Times Of War / Caryn E. Tegtmeyer And Debra L. Martin -- Shattered Mirrors : Gender, Age, And Westernized Interpretations Of War (and Violence) In The Past / Kathryn M. Koziol -- War At The Door : Evolutionary Considerations Of Warfare And Female Fighters / Jennifer Bengtson And Jodie O'gorman -- Politics And Social Substitution In Total War : Exploring The Treatment Of Combatants And Noncombatants During The Mississippian Period Of The Central Illinois Valley / Mallorie A. Hatch -- When Elites Wage War : Violence And Social Coercion Along The Chaco Meridian / Caryn E. Tegtmeyer And Ryan P. Harrod -- Caught In A Cataclysm : Effects Of Pueblo Warfare On Noncombatants In The Northern Southwest / Kristin A. Kuckelman, John J. Crandall, And Debra L. Martin -- The Poetics Of Annihilation : On The Presence Of Women And Children At Massacre Sites In The Ancient Southwest / Anna J. Osterholtz And Debra L. Martin -- Army Health Care For Sable Soldiers During The American Civil War / Carlina De La Cova -- Potential Applications Of Public Health Tools To Bioarchaeological Data Sets : The Dirty War Index And The Biological Costs Of Armed Conflict For Children / Molly K. Zuckerman And Petra Banks -- Conclusion : The Deeper You Dig, The Dirtier It Gets / Debra L. Martin And Caryn E. Tegtmeyer. Debra L. Martin, Caryn Tegtmeyer, Editors. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Front Matter....Pages i-xiii The Bioarchaeology of Women, Children, and Other Vulnerable Groups in Times of War....Pages 1-14 Shattered Mirrors: Gender, Age, and Westernized Interpretations of War (and Violence) in the Past....Pages 15-26 War at the Door: Evolutionary Considerations of Warfare and Female Fighters....Pages 27-48 Politics and Social Substitution in Total War: Exploring the Treatment of Combatants and Noncombatants During the Mississippian Period of the Central Illinois Valley....Pages 49-69 When Elites Wage War: Violence and Social Coercion Along the Chaco Meridian....Pages 71-91 Caught in a Cataclysm: Effects of Pueblo Warfare on Noncombatants in the Northern Southwest....Pages 93-110 The Poetics of Annihilation: On the Presence of Women and Children at Massacre Sites in the Ancient Southwest....Pages 111-128 Army Health Care for Sable Soldiers During the American Civil War....Pages 129-148 Potential Applications of Public Health Tools to Bioarchaeological Data Sets: The “Dirty War Index” and the Biological Costs of Armed Conflict for Children....Pages 149-175 Conclusion: The Deeper You Dig, the Dirtier It Gets....Pages 177-182 Back Matter....Pages 183-187