Between Two Empires : Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America

## Abstract Before World War II, Japanese immigrants, or Issei, forged a unique transnational identity between their native land and the United States. Whether merchants, community leaders, or rural farmers, Japanese immigrants shared a collective racial identity as aliens ineligible for American citizenship, even as they worked to form communities in the American West. At the same time, Imperial Japan considered Issei and their descendents part of its racial expansion abroad and enlisted them to further their nationalist goals. This book shows how Japanese immigrants negotiated their racial and class positions alongside white Americans, Chinese, and Filipinos at a time when Japan was fighting their countries of origin. Utilizing rare Japanese and English language sources, the book stresses the tight grips, as well as the clashing influences, the Japanese and American states exercised over Japanese immigrants and how they created identities that diverged from either national narrative. Contents......Page 12 Note on the Translation and Transliteration of Japanese Names and Words......Page 14 Introduction: Immigrant Transnationalism between Two Empires......Page 18 Part I: Multiple Beginnings......Page 30 1. Mercantilists, Colonialists, and Laborers: Heterogeneous Origins of Japanese America......Page 32 Part II: Convergences and Divergences......Page 48 2. Re-Forming the Immigrant Masses: The Transnational Construction of a Moral Citizenry......Page 50 3. Zaibei Doho: Racial Exclusion and the Making of an American Minority......Page 76 Part III: Pioneers and Successors......Page 102 4. “Pioneers of Japanese Development”: History Making and Racial Identity......Page 104 5. The Problem of Generation: Preparing the Nisei for the Future......Page 126 6. Wages of Immigrant Internationalism: Nisei in the Ancestral Land......Page 150 Part IV: Complexities of Immigrant Nationalism......Page 176 7. Helping Japan, Helping Ourselves: The Meaning of Issei Patriotism......Page 178 8. Ethnic Nationalism and Racial Struggle: Interethnic Relations in the California Delta......Page 202 Epilogue: Wartime Racisms, State Nationalisms, and the Collapse of Immigrant Transnationalism......Page 223 Notes......Page 232 Bibliography......Page 294 A......Page 314 C......Page 315 H......Page 316 J......Page 317 M......Page 318 P......Page 319 T......Page 320 Z......Page 321 Contents 12 Note on the Translation and Transliteration of Japanese Names and Words 14 Introduction: Immigrant Transnationalism between Two Empires 18 Part I: Multiple Beginnings 30 1. Mercantilists, Colonialists, and Laborers: Heterogeneous Origins of Japanese America 32 Part II: Convergences and Divergences 48 2. Re-Forming the Immigrant Masses: The Transnational Construction of a Moral Citizenry 50 3. Zaibei Doho: Racial Exclusion and the Making of an American Minority 76 Part III: Pioneers and Successors 102 4. “Pioneers of Japanese Development”: History Making and Racial Identity 104 5. The Problem of Generation: Preparing the Nisei for the Future 126 6. Wages of Immigrant Internationalism: Nisei in the Ancestral Land 150 Part IV: Complexities of Immigrant Nationalism 176 7. Helping Japan, Helping Ourselves: The Meaning of Issei Patriotism 178 8. Ethnic Nationalism and Racial Struggle: Interethnic Relations in the California Delta 202 Epilogue: Wartime Racisms, State Nationalisms, and the Collapse of Immigrant Transnationalism 223 Notes 232 Bibliography 294 Index 314 A 314 B 315 C 315 D 316 E 316 F 316 G 316 H 316 I 317 J 317 K 318 L 318 M 318 N 319 O 319 P 319 R 320 S 320 T 320 U 321 V 321 W 321 Y 321 Z 321 'between Two Empires' Probes The Complexities Of Prewar Japanese American Community To Show How Japanese In America Occupied An In-between Space Between American Nationality And Japanese Racial Identity. Immigrant Transnationalism Between Two Empires -- I: Multiple Beginnings -- Mercantilists, Colonialists, And Laborers: Heterogeneous Origins Of Japanese America -- Ii: Convergences And Divergences -- Re-forming The Immigrant Masses: The Transnational Construction Of A Moral Citizenry -- Zaibei Doho: Racial Exclusion And The Making Of An American Minority -- Iii: Pioneers And Successors -- Pioneers Of Japanese Development: History Making And Racial Identity -- The Problem Of Generation: Preparing The Nisei For The Future -- Wages Of Immigrant Internationalism: Nisei In The Ancestral Land -- Iv: Complexities Of Immigrant Nationalism -- Helping Japan, Helping Ourselves: The Meaning Of Issei Patriotism -- Ethnic Nationalism And Racial Struggle: Interethnic Relations In The California Delta -- Wartime Racisms, State Nationalisms, And The Collapse Of Immigrant Transnationalism. Eiichiro Azuma. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 279-297) And Index. "Before World War II, Japanese immigrants, or Issei, forged a unique transnational identity between their native land and the United States. Whether merchants, community leaders, or rural farmers, Japanese immigrants shared a collective racial identity as aliens ineligible for American citizenship, even as they worked to form communities in the American West. At the same time, Imperial Japan considered Issei and their descendents part of its racial expansion abroad and enlisted them to further their nationalist goals. Azuma shows how Japanese immigrants negotiated their racial and class positions alongside white Americans, Chinese, and Filipinos at a time when Japan was fighting their countries of origin. Utilizing rare Japanese and English language sources, Azuma stresses the tight grips, as well as the clashing influences, the Japanese and American states exercised over Japanese immigrants, and how these immigrants and their descendants created identities that diverged from both national narratives."-- Provided by publisher The incarceration of Japanese Americans has been discredited as a major blemish in American democratic tradition. Accompanying this view is the assumption that the ethnic group held unqualified allegiance to the United States. Between Two Empires probes the complexities of prewar Japanese America to show how Japanese in America held an in-between space between the United States and the empire of Japan, between American nationality and Japanese racial identity. The incarceration of Japanese Americans has been discredited as a major blemish in American democratic tradition. Accompanying this view is the assumption that the ethnic group help unqualified allegiance to the United States. Between Two Empires probes the complexities of prewar Japanese America to show how Japanese in America held an in-between space between the United States and the empire of Japan, between American nationality and Japanese racial identity. The incarceration of Japanese Americans has been discredited as a major blemish in American democratic tradition. This book probes the complexities of pre-war Japanese America to show how Japanese in America held an in-between space between the United States and the empire of Japan, between American nationality and Japanese racial identity.