Becoming a Physician : Medical Education in Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, 1750-1945

Written by eminent education scholar Thomas Neville Bonner, Becoming A Physician is a groundbreaking, comprehensive history of Western medical education. The only work of its kind, it covers the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany. Comparative in focus, the narrative unfolds within the context of social, political, and intellectual transformations that occurred in Europe and North America between the Enlightenment and Nazi Germany. Viewing the late eighteenth century as a watershed in the development of medical education, Bonner begins by describing how earlier practices evolved in the 1800s with the introduction of clinical practices. He then traces the growth of laboratory teaching in the nineteenth century and the twentieth-century preoccupation with establishing a university standard of medical education. Throughout, Bonner pays particular attention to the students, chronicling their daily lives and discussing changes in the medical school population and the various biases-- class, gender, racial, and religious--students and prospective students faced. Contents 10 Introduction 16 1. An Uncertain Enterprise: Learning to Heal in the Enlightenment 25 The Breakdown of the Medieval Order 27 Varieties of Healers 29 Serving the Rural Population 35 The Role of the State 39 2. Changing Patterns of Medical Study Before 1800 46 Medicine as University Study 47 Other Sites of Medical Study 56 Rapprochement of Medicine and Surgery 69 The Shape of Things to Come 71 3. Lives of Medical Students and Their Teachers (Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century) 74 Social Class and Medical Study 76 The Chorus of Advice 83 A Portrait of a Student of Medicine 85 Classroom and Hospital 93 Vexations of Academic Life 94 The Medical Teacher 102 Across National Boundaries 111 4. The Clinical Impulse and National Response, 1780–1830 116 What Is a Clinic? 117 The Revolutionary Changes in France 119 Hospital or Policlinic? 122 Clinical Teaching in Britain and America 127 Outside the Walls of Academe 132 Military Medicine and the Clinic 136 Glimpses of Clinical Teaching 138 Contrasts in French Clinical Training 141 Practical Teaching in Anglo-America 145 Paris, the Clinic, and History 149 5. Science and Medical Study: Early Nineteenth Century 155 The New Sciences and the Old Curriculum 158 The Spread of "Morbid Anatomy," 159 The Beginnings of Physiology as a Medical Subject 164 Medical Study and National Differences 169 6. A Bird's Eye View of Medical Education in 1830 171 The German Enterprise in Medical Education 172 The French System: Comparisons and Contrasts 176 An Overview of Medical Education in Great Britain 179 North American Medical Training in 1830 188 7. Toward New Goals for Medical Education, 1830–1850 195 The Struggle for Change in Britain and America 195 The Aims of Reformers on the Continent 198 Germany Advances the Single Standard 200 The Reform Movement in France 203 Creating a Safe, General Practitioner in Great Britain 206 Striving for Change in the United States 208 Medical Teachers at Midcentury 213 8. Between Clinic and Laboratory: Students and Teaching at Midcentury 216 Social Distinctions in Preparation for Medicine 217 Women and Medical Education Circa 1850 220 The Lives of Medical Students 226 A Changing Curriculum 230 Beyond the Classroom 239 9. The Spread of Laboratory Teaching, 1850–1870 244 Why Germany? 245 The Laboratory as an Extension of Practical Teaching 249 The Spread of Laboratory Teaching, 1850–1870 252 The Teaching Laboratory in France 254 Anglo-American Teaching and the Laboratory 257 10. The Laboratory Versus the Clinic: The Fight for the Curriculum, 1870–1890 264 The Axis of the 1870s 265 The German University at Its Zenith 266 Reappraising Medical Training in France 268 The 1870s in Great Britain 272 America in the 1870s 277 The Fight for the Curriculum 281 Conflict in Germany 282 The Clinic Versus the Laboratory in Great Britain 288 Resistance to Laboratory Science in America 289 The French Clinic and the "Auxiliary" Sciences 291 After 1890 291 11. Toward a University Standard of Medical Education, 1890–1920 293 The Persistence of National Differences 294 The Systems at the Fin de Siècle 298 Universities, Laboratory Science, and Medicine 301 Medical Education and the American University 304 The Goal of University Teaching in Britain 308 Science, the Clinic, and Flexner 311 The War and Medical Education, 1914–1920 319 12. Changing Student Populations in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century 322 Changing Expectations and Rising Costs 322 The Limited Admission of Women to Medicine 325 Anti-Semitism and Medical Study 328 The Student Experience 329 Access to Patients and Clinics 331 13. Consolidation, Stability, and New Upheavals, 1920–1945 338 The Aftermath of War 339 Between the Wars 340 British Efforts at Change in the 1920s 343 The Continent: Echoes of Old Battles 345 The Hardening of National Differences 349 Students, Depression, and Political Turmoil 350 Women's Study Between the Wars 351 Anti-Semitism in Germany and Elsewhere 353 African Americans and Medical Study 355 War and Medical Study: 1939–1945 356 14. A Closing Word 359 Bibliography 362 Index 418 A 418 B 418 C 419 D 419 E 420 F 420 G 420 H 420 I 421 J 421 K 421 L 421 M 421 N 422 O 422 P 423 Q 423 R 423 S 423 T 424 U 424 V 424 W 424 Y 425 Z 425

written By Eminent Education Scholar Thomas Neville Bonner, becoming A Physician Is A Groundbreaking, Comprehensive History Of Western Medical Education. The Only Work Of Its Kind, It Covers The United States, Great Britain, France, And Germany. Comparative In Focus, The Narrative Unfolds Within The Context Of Social, Political, And Intellectual Transformations That Occurred In Europe And North America Between The Enlightenment And Nazi Germany. Viewing The Late Eighteenth Century As A Watershed In The Development Of Medical Education, Bonner Begins By Describing How Earlier Practices Evolved In The 1800s With The Introduction Of Clinical Practices. He Then Traces The Growth Of Laboratory Teaching In The Nineteenth Century And The Twentieth-century Preoccupation With Establishing A University Standard Of Medical Education. Throughout, Bonner Pays Particular Attention To The Students, Chronicling Their Daily Lives And Discussing Changes In The Medical School Population And The Various Biases— Class, Gender, Racial, And Religious—students And Prospective Students Faced.

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the Author, A Distinguished Scholar And University Administrator, Complements His Earlier To The Ends Of The Earth: Women's Search For Education In Medicine (harvard Univ. Pr., 1992) With A Broader Look At Medical Education. Bonner Traces How Such Education Evolved In Four Western Countries Since The Enlightenment As Their Respective Medical Establishments Gradually Incorporated Advances In Natural Sciences And Developed A Balance Among Theoretical, Clinical, And Laboratory Approaches To Instruction. Not Merely An Institutional Study, Bonner's Monograph Describes The Changing But Always Exhausting Experiences Of Medical Students And The Glacial Advances Of Women And Minorities As They Sought Access To Medical Training. A Scholarly And Comprehensive Analysis, Bonner's Book Is Highly Recommended For Academic And Medical Libraries.-kathy Arsenault, Univ. Of South Florida-st. Petersburg Lib.

Viewing the late eighteenth century as a critical watershed in the development of medical education, Bonner begins by describing how earlier practices evolved in the 1800s with the introduction of clinical practices. He then traces the growth of laboratory teaching in the nineteenth century and the twentieth-century preoccupation with establishing a university standard of medical education. Throughout this fascinating work, Bonner pays particular attention to the students themselves. He not only depicts the changing nature of the medical population, but he also chronicles their daily lives and discusses the religious, gender, class, and racial restrictions imposed upon them. Highly readable and sweeping in scope, Becoming a Physician challenges readers to look at this vital subject from new perspectives Written by eminent education scholar Thomas Neville Bonner, Becoming a Physician is a groundbreaking, comprehensive history of Western medical education. The only work of its kind, it covers the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany. Challenging previous portrayals of medical education as a story of steady and sometimes heroic progress, Bonner bases his study within the context of social, political, and intellectual transformations that occurred in Europe and North America between the Enlightenment and Nazi Germany. Comparative in focus, Becoming a Physician also reveals both the similarities and differences in how medical knowledge has been disseminated within the four countries and how these approaches have reflected and affected the individual cultures This is a comprehensive comparative history of medical education in the West from 1750 to 1945. It traces the social, political, and intellectual background that fostered medical knowledge - especially in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and France - and indicates how this knowledge affected medical education in each of these countries.