Basic Electronics : For BPUT Subject Code BE-2101

Cover Contents Preface Roadmap to the Syllabus About the Author Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier 1-1 Introduction to Electronics 1-2 The Operational Amplifier 1-3 Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier 1-4 Specifications of IC 741c 1-4-1 Description of Op-Amp 741 IC Pins 1-5 Operational Amplifier and Its Terminal Properties 1-5-1 Input Offset Voltage and Output Offset Voltage 1-5-2 Input-Bias Current 1-5-3 Input Offset Current and Output Offset Current 1-5-4 Input Offset Null Voltage 1-5-5 Differential Input Resistance 1-5-6 Input Capacitance 1-5-7 Offset Voltage Adjustment Range 1-5-8 Input Voltage Range 1-5-9 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 1- 5-10 Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR) 1-5-11 Large Signal Voltage Gain 1-5-12 Output Voltage Swing 1-5-13 Output Resistance 1-5-14 Supply Voltage 1-5-15 Supply Current 1-5-16 Power Consumption 1-5-17 Slew Rate 1-5-18 Gain Bandwidth Product 1-5-19 Virtual Ground 1-6 Applications of the Operational Amplifier 1-6-1 Inverting Mode of Operation 1-6-2 Non-Inverting Mode of Operation 1-6-3 Voltage Summing, Difference, and Constant Gain Multiplier 1-6-4 Voltage Follower or Unity Gain Amplifier 1-6-5 Comparator 1-6-6 Integrator 1-6-7 Differentiator 1-6-8 Logarithmic Amplifier 1-7 Real-Life Applications Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 2: Diode Fundamentals 2-1 Introduction 2-2 Formation of the p–n Junction 2-3 Energy Band Diagrams 2-3-1 The p–n Junction at Thermal Equilibrium 2-4 Concepts of Junction Potential 2-4-1 Space-Charge Region 2-4-2 Built-in and Contact Potentials 2-4-3 Effect of Doping on Barrier Field 2-4-4 Formulation of Built-in Potential 2-5 Modes of the p–n Junction 2-5-1 The p–n Junction with External Applied Voltage 2-5-2 Rectifying Voltage–Current Characteristics of a p–n Junction 2-5-3 The Junction Capacitance 2-5-4 The Varactor Diode 2-6 Derivation of the I–V Characteristics of a p–n Junction Diode 2-7 Linear Piecewise Models 2-8 Breakdown Diode 2-8-1 Zener Breakdown 2-8-2 Avalanche Breakdown Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 3: Diode Circuits 3-1 Introduction 3-2 Analysis of Diode Circuits 3-3 Load Line and Q-point 3-4 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator 3-4-1 Line Regulation 3-4-2 Load Regulation: Regulation with Varying Load Resistance 3-5 Rectifiers 3-5-1 Half-Wave Rectifier 3-5-2 Full-Wave Rectifier 3-5-3 Use of Filters in Rectification 3-5-4 Regulation 3-5-5 Performance Analysis of Various Rectifier Circuits 3-6 Clipper and Clamper Circuits 3-6-1 Clipper 3-6-2 Clamper 3-7 Comparators 3-8 Additional Diode Circuits 3-8-1 Voltage Multiplier 3-8-2 Peak Detector 3-8-3 Digital Circuits 3-8-4 Switching Regulators 3-9 Special types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes 3-9-1 Tunnel Diode 3-9-2 Light-Emitting Diode 3-9-3 Photo Detector Diode 3-9-4 Photovoltaic Diode 3-10 Applications of Diode 3-10-1 Radio Demodulation 3-10-2 Power Conversion 3-10-3 Over-Voltage Protection 3-10-4 Logic Gates 3-10-5 Ionizing Radiation Detectors 3-10-6 Temperature Measuring 3-10-7 Charge-Coupled Devices Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 4: BJT Fundamentals 4-1 Introduction 4-2 Formation of p–n–p and n–p–n Junctions 4-3 Transistor Mechanism 4-4 Energy Band Diagrams 4-5 Transistor Current Components 4-5-1 Current Components in p–n–p Transistor 4-5-2 Current Components in n–p–n Transistor 4-6 CB, CE and CC Configurations 4-6-1 Common-Base (CB) Mode 4-6-2 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode 4-6-3 Common-Collector (CC) Mode 4-7 Expression for Current Gain 4-7-1 Relationship Between a and b 4-8 Transistor Characteristics 4-8-1 Input Characteristics 4-8-2 Output Characteristics 4-9 Operating Point and the Concept of Load Line 4-10 Early Effect 4-11 Transistor as Amplifier 4-11-1 The Parameter a ׳ 4-12 Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain and Output Resistance 4-12-1 Current Gain (AI) 4-12-2 Input Resistance (RI) 4-12-3 V oltage Gain (A V ) 4-12-4 Output Resistance (RO) 4-13 Frequency Response for CE Amplifier With and Without Source Impedance 4-13-1 Conclusions 4-14 Emitter Follower Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 5: BJT Circuits 5-1 Introduction 5-2 Biasing and Bias Stability 5-2-1 Circuit Configurations 5-2-2 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE , and β 5-3 Calculation of Stability Factors 5-3-1 Stability Factor S 5-3-2 Stability Factor S' 5-3-3 Stability Factor S′′ 5-3-4 General Remarks on Collector Current Stability 5-4 CE, CB Modes and their Properties 5-4-1 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode 5-4-2 Common-Base Mode 5-5 Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors 5-5-1 Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network 5-6 Equivalent Circuits through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network 5-7 Darlington Pair 5-8 Transistor at High Frequencies 5-9 Real-Life Applications of the Transistor Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 6: Feedback Amplifier 6-1 Introduction 6-2 Conceptual Development Through Block Diagrams 6-2-1 Input Signal 6-2-2 Output Signal 6-2-3 Sampling Network 6-2-4 Comparison or Summing Network 6-2-5 Basic Amplifier 6-3 Properties of Negative Feedback 6-4 Calculations of Open-Loop Gain, Closed-Loop Gain and Feedback Factors 6-4-1 Loop Gain or Return Ratio 6-5 Topologies of the Feedback Amplifier 6-5-1 Voltage-Series or Series-Shunt Feedback 6-5-2 Current-Series or Series-Series Feedback 6-5-3 Current-Shunt or Shunt-Series Feedback 6-5-4 Voltage-Shunt or Shunt-Shunt Feedback 6-6 Effect of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedances 6-6-1 Effect of Feedback on Input Impedance 6-6-2 Effect of Feedback on Output Impedance 6-7 Practical Implementations of the Feedback Topologies 6-7-1 Voltage-Series Feedback Using Transistor 6-7-2 Current-Series Feedback Using Transistor 6-7-3 Voltage-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor 6-7-4 Current-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor 6-8 Sensitivity 6-9 Bandwidth Stability 6-10 Effect of Positive Feedback 6-10-1 Instability and Oscillation 6-10-2 Nyquist Criterion 6-10-3 Condition of Oscillation 6-10-4 Barkhausen Criterion Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 7: Oscillators 7-1 Introduction 7-2 Classifications of Oscillators 7-3 Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator 7-3-1 Hartley Oscillator 7-3-2 Colpitts Oscillator 7-3-3 Phase-Shift Oscillator 7-3-4 Wien-Bridge Oscillator 7-4 Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion 7-4-1 Nyquist Criterion for Oscillation 7-5 Tuned Oscillator 7-5-1 Circuit Analysis 7-6 Crystal Oscillator 7-7 Real-Life Applications 7-7-1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 7-7-2 Cascode Crystal Oscillator Points to Remember Important Formulae Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 8: Electronic Instruments 8-1 Introduction 8-2 Components of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope 8-3 Time-Base Generators 8-3-1 Oscilloscope Amplifiers 8-3-2 Vertical Amplifiers 8-4 Sweep Frequency Generator 8-4-1 Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator 8-5 Measurements Using the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope 8-5-1 Measurement of Frequency 8-5-2 Measurement of Phase 8-5-3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures 8-6 Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope 8-6-1 Analog CRO 8-6-2 Digital CRO 8-6-3 Storage CRO 8-6-4 Dual-Beam CRO 8-7 Cathode-Ray Tube 8-7-1 Electron Gun 8-7-2 Deflection Systems 8-7-3 Fluorescent Screen 8-8 Sine Wave Generator 8-9 Square Wave Generator 8-10 AF Signal Generator 8-11 Function Generator Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Chapter 9: Digital Electronic Principles 9-1 Introduction 9-2 Number System 9-3 Conversion of Number System 9-3-1 Binary to Decimal 9-3-2 Decimal to Binary 9-3-3 Numer System Conversions 9-4 Boolean Algebra 9-4-1 Addition 9-4-2 Subtraction 9-4-3 Basic Boolean Laws 9-5 Logic Gates 9-5-1 AND Gate 9-5-2 OR Gate 9-5-3 NOT Gate 9-5-4 NAND Gate 9-5-5 NOR Gate 9-5-6 XOR Gate 9-5-7 XNOR Gate 9-5-8 Universal Gate 9-5-9 Characteristics of Logic Gates 9-6 De Morgan’s Theorem 9-6-1 Using Basic Logic Gates 9-6-2 Application of De Morgan’s Theorem 9-7 Simplification of Boolean Expression 9-8 Logic Gate Circuits 9-8-1 Combinational Logic 9-8-2 Sequential Logic Circuit 9-9 Basic Concepts of Memory 9-10 Real-Life Applications Points to Remember Important Formulae Objective Questions Review Questions Practice Problems Suggested Readings Solved Question Papers Index