Autoimmunity, covid-19, post- covid 19 syndrome and covid-19 vaccination

Autoimmunity, COVID-19, Post-COVID-19 Syndrome and COVID-19 Vaccination covers all aspects of what is perhaps the most dramatic health crisis in the history of modern medicine. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) raised major concerns about the association between the virus and various autoimmune manifestations. Over 15 distinct autoantibodies and above 10 different autoimmune diseases were found to develop in COVID-19 patients. Moreover, evidence about recovered COVID-19 patients demonstrates that persistent systemic symptoms, which are believed to have an autoimmune-related mechanism, do exist. As it is of great importance to recognize those autoimmune manifestations of COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 syndrome to properly cope with their outcomes in the ongoing pandemic and the long-term post-pandemic period, this book fulfills a vital need in the medical community. Describe the short and long impact of COVID-19 on autoimmunity Provides understanding to the acute and chronic impact of the SARS-CoV-2 Gives insights into the long-term effects of COVID-19 on recovered patients Provides conclusions on the novel terms'chronic post-COVID-19 syndrome','post-acute COVID-19 syndrome', and'long COVID-19' Front Cover AUTOIMMUNITY, COVID-19, POST-COVID19 SYNDROME AND COVID-19 VACCINATION FUTURE OF AUTOIMMUNITY RESEARCH : AUTOIMMUNITY, COVID-19, POST-COVID19 SYNDROME AND COVID-19 VACCINATION Copyright Contents List of contributors About the editors Foreword Preface 1 - Setting a context for autoantibodies, autoimmunity, and autoimmune diseases associated with SARS-CoV2 Introduction “Causes” of autoimmune diseases: a “mosaic” of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors Historical context Controls and comparators Phenomenology is not pathology Time and timing is of the essence Temporarily does not equal causality Nobel 2021 PIEZO touch and temperature: COVID-19 myopathy Summary References 2 - The mosaic of autoimmunity and autoinflammation and SARS-CoV-2 as an environmental factor The mosaic of autoimmunity and autoinflammation SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 and biological mechanisms of virulence SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 as a further cobble of the mosaic of autoimmunity SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 and its impact on autoimmune/autoinflammatory disorders Alopecia areata and telogen effluvium Amyloidosis Ankylosing spondylitis Antiphospholipid syndrome, catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome, and HELLP syndrome Atopic dermatitis Autoimmune myopathies (myositis, dermatomyositis, and polymyositis) Autoimmune ocular diseases Autoimmune reproductive diseases Autoimmune thyroiditis, including Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease Behçet's disease Celiac disease Demyelinating syndromes Autoimmune hemolytic anemia Immune thrombocytopenia Inflammatory arthritis/reactive arthritis Inflammatory bowel diseases Lichen planus, lichen planopilaris, and lichen sclerosus Miller–Fisher syndrome Multiple sclerosis Myasthenia gravis and other autoimmune neuromuscular junction disorders Autoimmune myocarditis Pemphigus vulgaris and other autoimmune blistering diseases Polymyalgia rheumatica Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome Primary biliary cholangitis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and other autoimmune cholangiopathies Psoriasis Psoriatic arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis Sarcoidosis Sjögren's syndrome Systemic lupus erythematosus Systemic sclerosis and scleroderma Type 1 diabetes Vasculitis Vitiligo Conclusions and future prospects References 3 - Innate immune responses in COVID-19 Introduction Innate immune responses to COVID-19: cells of the innate immune system Innate immune responses to COVID-19: NETosis and neutrophils Innate immune responses to COVID-19: inflammasome Canonical inflammasomes in COVID-19 Noncanonical inflammasomes and COVID-19 Innate immune responses to COVID-19: TLRs Innate immune responses to COVID-19: cytokines Innate immune responses to COVID-19: the human leukocyte antigen genotype Innate immune responses to COVID-19: autophagy Innate immune responses to COVID-19: the complement system Mechanisms of complement activation during the SARS-CoV-2 infection Mechanisms of complement pathogenicity in severe forms of COVID-19 Targeting complement for the treatment of COVID-19 Innate immune responses to COVID-19: protecting or aggravating factors, biomarkers of severity C-reactive protein (CRP) Procalcitonin (PCT) Liver transaminases and albumin Cardiac biomarkers Coagulation markers Innate immune responses to COVID-19: role of microbiota Innate immune responses to COVID-19: therapeutic developments IL-6 GM-CSF IL-1 and IL-1R Interferons (IFNs) JAKs Inflammasomes (sensors) Gasdermins Inflammatory caspases and pan-caspase inhibition General comments and outlook Acknowledgments References 4 - The role of T cell immunity in COVID-19 Introduction Human corona virus Preformed memory T cells in the early infection The cytokine environment Lymphopenia Disease severity and T cells Dynamics of T cells in COVID-19 T cell functionality TCR signature in COVID-19 Conclusion References 5 - Laboratory characteristics of cytokine storm syndrome in COVID-19 infection Cytokine storm or cytokine release syndrome: definition and features Clinical examples of cytokine storm syndrome Prognostic value of cytokine measurement in COVID-19 Immunological patterns of secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, bacterial sepsis, and COVID-19 Cytokine storm syndrome score for disease prognosis Validation of cytokine storm syndrome score and its clinical relationship Conclusion remarks References 6 - COVID-19: the impact of the cytokine storm on the immune-neuroendocrine system Introduction COVID-19 infection, the cytokine storm and the immuno-neuroendocrine system The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA), COVID-19 infection, and cytokine storm The hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis (HPT), COVID-19 infection, and cytokine storm The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG), COVID-19 infection, and cytokine storm The autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic, COVID-19 infection, and cytokine storm Central nervous system, cytokine storm, and COVID-19 Conclusions References 7 - Genetic predisposition to COVID-19 and post-COVID syndrome Introduction Genetic predisposing factors in COVID-19 The X chromosome—gender Expression of ACE2 and related proteins Expression of pro-inflammatory proteins and its receptors HLA-genotypes ABO Predisposition to PCS Conclusions References 8 - Molecular mimicry and SARS-CoV-2 The concept of molecular mimicry and its relevance to autoimmunity Tools to study molecular mimicry Bioinformatic approaches investigating the role of SARS-CoV-2-related autoimmunity by molecular mimicry SARS-CoV-2, molecular mimicry, and Guillain–Barré syndrome SARS-CoV-2, molecular mimicry, and anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS) SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and autoimmunity SARS-CoV-2 and evidence of immunological cross-reactivity Conclusions References 9 - In silico study of molecular mimicry between SARS-CoV-2 and neutrophil extracellular traps composition in granu ... Introduction Materials and methods Blastp searches HLA binding predictions Proteins' features and network images Results and discussion Proteins associated with the highest number of different alleles This study versus HLA association studies of disease severity General features of the identified proteins SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19-related features of the identified proteins Things-to-improve Conclusion Data availability Appendix References 10 - COVID-19 and the hyperferritinemic syndromes References 11 - SARS-CoV-2 and microbiome: pathology, implications and therapeutic options The microbiome, intestinal ecosystem, and immunoresistance: uniquely balanced Intestinal immune cells Signal pattern recognizing receptors Microbiome functions Gut microbiome dysbiosis and SARS-CoV-2 Dysbiosis and immune modulation of microbiota SARS-CoV-2 and microbiota Microbiome and therapeutic options in SARS-CoV-2 pandemic Probiotic foods: microbiome restoration and supplementation The role of probiotics in pathology correction Modulation of the immune response through microbiota correction Postvaccination immunity modulation through microbiota correction Metabolic syndrome correction with probiotics Impact of COVID-19 on mental health and the role of microbiota Hyperreactive reactions and microbiota SARS-CoV-2 associated respiratory syndrome and microbiome Gastrointestinal pathology and COVID-19 The role of the microbiome in SARS-CoV-2 associated cytokine storm Metabiotics: novel treatment strategies Conclusion References 12 - Molecular and immunological evidence for SARS-CoV-2 being the autoimmune virus Introduction Criteria no. 1: identification of cross-reactive epitopes between SARS-CoV-2 and human tissue Criteria no. 2: reaction of animal and human monoclonal antibodies made against SARS-CoV-2 with human tissue antigens Criteria no. 3: reaction of antibody to human autoantigens with SARS-CoV-2 proteins Criteria no. 4: detection of autoantibodies against human tissue antigens in COVID-19 patients with different degrees of se ... Conclusions Acknowledgments References 13 - Autoantibodies neutralizing antiinflammatory mediators in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 Hyperinflammation initiated by SARS-CoV-2 Autoantibodies in COVID-19 The break of peripheral immune tolerance in the context of SARS-CoV-2 Posttranslational modifications as triggers of neo-epitope formation and autoimmunity Proinflammatory autoantibodies in the context of SARS-CoV-2 PGRN-antibodies and immunogenic isoform pSer81PGRN in the context of SARS-CoV-2 IL-1-Ra-antibodies and the immunogenic pThr111 isoform of IL-1-Ra in the context of SARS-CoV-2 Remaining questions around proinflammatory autoantibodies related to SARS-CoV-2 Acknowledgment References 14 - What is common to MDA5 and COVID-19? MDA5 receptor and anti-MDA5 autoantibody What are the similarities between COVID-19 disease and anti-MDA5 dermatomyositis? The pathophysiology of anti-MDA5 dermatomyositis and COVID-19 Immunomodulatory therapies for COVID-19 disease and anti-MDA5-positive CADM Conclusion References 15 - Humoral immunity and thrombosis in COVID-19 Introduction Autoantibodies and thrombosis Antiphospholipid antibodies Antiplatelet factor 4 antibodies Pro-inflammatory cytokines and thrombosis The cytokine release syndrome Cytokines and the endothelium Cytokines and their effect on platelets and neutrophils Cytokines and the coagulation cascade Cytokines and altered fibrinolysis Targeting the cytokine pathway Complement activation: endothelial perturbation and interaction with the coagulation cascade The role of complement Complement and coagulation cascade Complement in COVID-19 References 16 - Peripheral nervous system manifestations associated with COVID-19 Introduction Invasion of SARS-CoV-2 to the nervous system Neuropathology of SARS-CoV-2 Peripheral nervous system manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 Guillain–Barré syndrome Cranial abnormalities Myasthenia gravis Myopathy and myositis Conclusion References 17 - Central nervous system impairments in COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 infection and olfactory/gustatory disturbances Acknowledgment References 18 - Neuropsychiatric side of the COVID-19 Introduction Pathogenesis Proof of the COVID-19 invasion into the CNS Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 impact on CNS COVID-19-associated neuropsychiatric manifestations Neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19 infection Delirium Possible mechanisms of delirium Delayed and long-term COVID-19-induced neuropsychiatric complications Mood and anxiety disorders Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) COVID-induced psychosis and catatonia Post-COVID syndrome Post-COVID syndrome and suicidality Conclusion References 19 - Myocarditis following vaccination with Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 against coronavirus infection (COVID-19) Background Myocarditis following adult vaccination with two doses of Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 Myocarditis in adolescents following vaccination with two doses of Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 Myocarditis following adult vaccination with a third (booster) dose of Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 mRNA-1273 (Moderna) Mechanism of action of post-mRNA myocarditis Myocarditis associated with additional vaccines Summary References 20 - Rheumatic manifestations and autoimmunity associated with COVID-19 Introduction Pathophysiology of COVID-19 as a trigger of autoimmune disease Rheumatic diseases Axial SPA Reactive arthritis and psoriatic arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis and Still's disease Viral arthralgia Sjogren's disease Lofgren's syndrome Myositis Systemic sclerosis Chilblains SLE—systemic lupus erythematosus Hematological diseases Evan's syndrome Antiphospholipid antibodies ITP Aortic thrombosis Endocrine diseases Thyroid Diabetes mellitus Neurological diseases Encephalitis and anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis Guillain Barre syndrome Movement disorders Myasthenia gravis Other nonrheumatic autoimmune diseases Autoimmune hepatitis Pemphigus vulgaris References Further reading 21 - SARS-CoV-2 induction and COVID-19 manifestations related to autoimmune gastrointestinal diseases The COVID -19 pandemic: a short update The human intestine is a target organ for SARS-CoV-2 Gastrointestinal manifestations of COVID-19 Pathophysiological aspects for SARS-CoV-2-Associated Gastrointestinal Illness Compromising the beneficial functions of the ACE2 receptors The saliva adds to the virus intestinal inoculation The gut microbiome/dysbiome ratio is decreased Intestinal self-defense and protective barriers are compromised Tissue-specific patterns of SARS-CoV-2 variants and toll-like receptors (TLR) The host ACE2, TMPRSS4, and NRP-1 receptors facilitate SARS-CoV-2 infectivity in the GI tract The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) Induction of a leaky gut Inadequacy of butyrate, tryptophan, and vitamin D3 levels in COVID-19 Coronaviruses egress the host cells by lysosomal exocytosis and disrupt lysosomal and phagocytic functions Post-COVID-19 gut manifestations SARS-CoV-2 impact on gastrointestinal diseases Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) Celiac disease (CD) Conclusions aclink1 References 22 - Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children Introduction Epidemiology Pathophysiology Diagnostic approach Clinical picture Laboratory results Microbiology Radiologic examinations Diagnosis Differential diagnosis Treatment Immunomodulatory treatment Immune globulin (IVIG) Systemic glucocorticoids (GC) Biologics—anakinra Anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy Treatment targeting the affected organ system Disease outcome Reinfection and Mis-C Vaccinations and Mis-C Conclusion References 23 - Anosmia in COVID-19 and post-COVID syndrome Introduction Epidemiology of anosmia in COVID-19 and PCS Pathogenesis The structure of the olfactory organ Olfactory receptors (OR) Pathogenesis of anosmia Conclusion References 24 - The effect of COVID-19 on patients with preexisting autoimmune diseases Introduction Preexisting autoimmune rheumatic diseases General aspects Autoimmune rheumatic diseases and factors that influence COVID 19 Age and gender Races Comorbidities Drugs Conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs Biologic or targeted synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs COVID-19 in inflammatory arthritis COVID 19 in rheumatoid arthritis COVID-19 in spondyloarthropathies COVID-19 in antiphospholipid syndrome COVID-19 in systemic lupus erythematosus COVID-19 in systemic sclerosis COVID 19 in primary Sjogren syndrome COVID 19 in vasculitis Preexisting endocrine disorders and COVID-19 General aspects COVID-19 in pituitary disorders Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis Hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis Preexisting pituitary condition, glands disorders, and COVID-19 COVID-19 in hypopituitarism and adrenal insufficiency COVID-19 in autoimmune thyroids diseases Autoimmune neurological disease and COVID-19 COVID-19 in multiple sclerosis COVID-19 in autoimmune encephalitis Experience in autoimmune diseases and COVID-19 in a single Mexican center Conclusions References Further reading 25 - COVID-19 in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome Introduction COVID-19: the disease in SLE patients with or without APS/aPL COVID-19 & SLE COVID-19 & APS COVID-19 & SLE/APS treatment Pregnancy COVID-19: vaccination SLE patients with or without APS/aPL Immunogenicity and effectiveness of Covid-19 vaccines in SLE patients Safety of Covid-19 vaccines in patients with SLE Covid-19 vaccines & aPL Covid-19 vaccines and pregnancy Current recommendations by the American College of Rheumatology Post-COVID and SLE/APS: similar manifestations References 26 - Psoriatic arthritis and psoriasis in the era of COVID-19 Introduction Psoriatic arthritis and psoriasis Pathophysiology Comorbidities Metabolic syndrome Diabetes mellitus type 2 Obesity Treatment of psoriatic arthritis Treatment of psoriasis The SARS-CoV-2 virus The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic Risk factors for severe SARS-CoV-2 infection Obesity and SARS-CoV-2 infection Psoriatic disease and SARS-CoV-2 Psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis, and SARS-CoV-2 infection Psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis treatment, and SARS-CoV-2 Psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis management in the COVID-19 pandemic Protection from COVID-19 infection in psoriatic patients Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection in psoriatic patients Conclusion References 27 - Thyroid autoimmunity and COVID-19 Introduction Autoimmune thyroid diseases Subacute thyroiditis The SARS-CoV-2 virus Mechanism of tissue invasion by the SARS-CoV-2 virus Mechanism of autoimmunity induction Autoimmune and inflammatory thyroid diseases and SARS-CoV-2 Subacute thyroiditis Autoimmune thyroiditis Graves' disease Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 and thyroid disease Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 Subacute thyroiditis in the context of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine Silent thyroiditis in the context of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine Graves' disease in the context of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine Mechanisms of thyroid disease in SARS-CoV-2 Conclusion References 28 - Variation of the COVID-19 characteristics between genders Introduction Sex differences in severity and outcome of COVID-19 Comorbidities vary between sexes with consequences for the severity of COVID-19 infections Sexual dimorphism in SARS-CoV-2 entry pathways Sex hormone-dependent regulation of ACE2 Sex-dependent differences in the expression of transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2) Sex-dependent dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) activity Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, sex hormones, and COVID-19 Sex discrepancies in the immune response to COVID-19 Sex-related differences in autoimmunity and COVID-19 vaccines Sexual dimorphism and long COVID syndrome Conclusions References 29 - SARS-CoV-2, fertility-related autoantibodies and reproductive injury Introduction SARS-CoV-2 and male fertility SARS-CoV-2 and female fertility Mechanisms in which SARS-COV-2 may lead to infertility ACE2 as a port of entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells Sex steroid hormonal abnormalities of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients Oxidative stress induced by SARS-CoV-2 Molecular mimicry between SARS-CoV-2 and humans Autoantibodies associated with infertility References Further reading 30 - Maternal and fetal issues in COVID-19-mediated thromboinflammation Introduction Possible etiopathogenetic mechanisms of thromboinflammation in COVID-19 Maternal–fetal–neonatal issues in COVID-19 Placenta Fetus Conclusion References 31 - Animal models of COVID-19 and complications Introduction Animal species used for SARS-CoV-2 infection Modeling of COVID-19 infection, rodents Rodents Mice Syrian hamsters Carnivora Ferrets Modeling of COVID-19 infection, nonhuman primates Rhesus macaques Modeling postacute COVID-19 infection (long covid), rodents Acknowledgments References 32 - Risk assessment for aerosol infection by SARS-CoV-2 and protection by respirators and surgical masks Background What are the conditions for aerosol infection? How are these conditions pertain to SARS-CoV-2 Airborne transmission as the dominant route for the spread of COVID-19 Masks and respirators for protection against airborne infection SARS-CoV-2 transmission and infection with or without masks in closed places and the home The risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission from patients to hospital roommates Universal masking in a health care system and SARS-CoV-2 infection among healthcare workers (HCW) Effectivity of face masks in limiting particle dissemination and the probability of SARS-CoV-2 transmission Masks for prevention of respiratory viral infections The added value of face shields in preventing infections in the community and hospital Concluding remarks References Further reading 33 - Therapeutic options in COVID-19 Overview Antiviral medications Passive immunization Anticoagulation Immunomodulation Respiratory support References 34 - Intravenous immunoglobulin and convalescent plasma treatment in the COVID-19 patient Introduction Immunological effect of IVIg in COVID-19 IVIg as possible therapeutical approach for COVID-19 Convalescent plasm: lights and shadows IVIg in autoimmune disorders induced by SARS-CoV-2 Neurological disorders after SARS-CoV-2 infection Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) Myasthenia gravis Hematological autoimmune disorders after COVID-19 infection Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) and autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) Fisher Evans syndrome Pemphigus Autoimmune diseases related to COVID-19 vaccine Neurological disorders Hematological disorders References 35 - Interaction between vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 Introduction to vitamin D Vitamin D and the immune system Brief overview of the immune system The immunological effects of vitamin D Causes of vitamin D deficiency Factors that compromise the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D Factors that decrease the intake and absorption of vitamin D Factors that alter the metabolism of vitamin D COVID-19 and vitamin D deficiency Susceptibility for SARS-CoV-2 infection and vitamin D status COVID-19 disease severity and vitamin D status Long COVID and vitamin D status Vitamin D supplementation in COVID/long COVID patients COVID vaccine and vitamin D—is there a relationship? Recommendations References 36 - Side effects of the COVID-19 vaccines Introduction Vaccines Vaccines: mechanism of the immune response Vaccines: molecular structure Types of vaccines anti-COVID-19 Adjuvants Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome (ASIA) induced by vaccines Covid-19 vaccination Rheumatologic adverse effects Cardiovascular adverse effects Endocrine adverse effects Dermatologic adverse effects Hematological adverse effects Nephrological adverse effects Neurological adverse effects Other adverse effects Discussion Conclusion References 37 - The post-COVID syndrome Long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome: background and current case definition Epidemiology Clinical symptoms of the post-COVID patients Pathophysiological hypotheses of the post-COVID syndrome Novel coronavirus infection and autoimmunity The role of small fiber neuropathy in the development of post-COVID syndrome The role of macro- and microcirculation disorders in the pathogenesis of post-COVID syndrome Differential diagnosis Conclusion References 38 - Disease course and pathogenesis of post-COVID-19 condition Post-COVID-19 condition: disease course Post-COVID-19 condition: disease course probable links of pathogenesis Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 Immune-related mechanisms Vascular mechanisms Autonomic dysfunction Endocrine mechanisms References 39 - Long-term assessment of autoantibodies in post-COVID syndrome Antibodies to the autonomic nervous system in patients with post-COVID-19 syndrome Post-COVID-19 syndrome, rheumatological diseases, and antibodies to the components of the immune system Possible causes of autoantibodies production in the post-COVID-19 condition Conclusion References 40 - Post-COVID-19 syndrome and fibromyalgia References 41 - Treatment and prevention of the post-COVID syndrome Principles of treatment of the post-COVID syndrome Immunological manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome Neurological complications of the COVID-19 Internal organ dysfunction in patients with post-COVID-19 condition Conclusion References Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W X Y Z Back Cover