Athena Unbound : The Advancement of Women in Science and Technology

Why are there still so few female scientists? Despite the scientific ethos of universalism and inclusion, women continue to experience real social inequities as they struggle to gain recognition in the scientific community. Based on extensive interviews and backed by quantitative analysis, this compelling work exposes the hidden barriers, subtle exclusions, and unwritten rules that confront women at every juncture along the scientific career path--from childhood to retirement. Through vivid personal accounts the authors offer an illuminating and sobering view of the effects these obstacles have on the personal and professional lives of women. They argue that women can succeed in the scientific workplace by successfully managing "social capital," those networks and relationships scientists rely on for professional support and new ideas. This benchmark volume is vital reading for all scientists and social scientists--both male and female--and for women considering a scientific career. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Dedication......Page 4 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Acknowledgements......Page 8 Introduction Women in science: Why so few?......Page 9 A LIFE COURSE ANALYSIS OF WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 10 1 The science career pipeline......Page 13 THE U.S. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM......Page 14 THE LOSS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE......Page 18 THE FALLACY OF THE ‘SUPPLY SIDE’......Page 20 Role models......Page 21 2 Women and science: Athena Bound......Page 23 SCIENTIFIC HEROINES......Page 25 UNSUNG HEROINES AND INVISIBLE BATTLES......Page 30 OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 32 THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE PERSONAL AND THE PROFESSIONAL......Page 34 3 Gender, sex and science......Page 39 GENDERED CHOICES......Page 40 VERY YOUNG CHILDREN’S CONCEPT OF THE SCIENTIST......Page 41 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE EARLY YEARS......Page 45 STEREOTYPING OF SCIENCE IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL YEARS......Page 46 DISCOURAGEMENT OF GIRL'S INTEREST IN SCIENCE DURING ADOLESCENCE......Page 50 FORECLOSING WOMEN’S CHOICE TO DO SCIENCE......Page 55 The weed-out system......Page 57 GENDER SOCIALIZATION AND UNDERGRADUATE SCIENCE EDUCATION......Page 61 BEATING THE SYSTEM OR BEING BEATEN BY IT......Page 67 UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS THAT PROMOTE WOMEN’S INTEREST IN SCIENCE......Page 71 CHANGING THE WEED-OUT SYSTEM......Page 73 5 Critical transitions in the graduate and post-graduate career path......Page 77 THE U.S. GRADUATE EDUCATION MODEL......Page 78 THE ILLUSION OF MALE AUTONOMY......Page 80 THE UNOFFICIAL PH.D. PROGRAM......Page 81 EXCLUSION FROM STUDY GROUPS......Page 82 QUALIFYING EXAMINATIONS......Page 83 FINDING AN ADVISOR......Page 85 6 Women’s (and men’s) graduate experience in science......Page 91 NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF ACADEMIC CULTURE FOR WOMEN......Page 92 LIFE-COURSE EVENTS......Page 95 MARRIAGE AND FAMILY......Page 96 THE ACCUMULATION OF DISADVANTAGE......Page 99 INFORMAL TRANSITIONS: THE ROLE OF CONFERENCES......Page 103 FINISHING THE PROGRAM......Page 105 POST-DOCTORAL FELLOWS......Page 106 OVERCOMING THE EFFECTS OF ISOLATION......Page 108 WOMEN’S (AND MEN’S) GRADUATE EXPERIENCE: A SUMMARY......Page 109 7 The paradox of critical mass for women in science......Page 113 ALTERNATIVE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES......Page 117 IS CRITICAL MASS SUFFICIENT?......Page 118 THE EMERGENCE OF FEMALE-GENDERED SUBFIELDS......Page 120 8 The ‘kula ring’ of scientific success......Page 123 SOCIAL AND OTHER CAPITALS: DEFINING OUR TERMS......Page 125 THE NEW ORDER OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION......Page 126 THE MOBILIZATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN SCIENTIFIC CAREERS......Page 129 SOCIAL CAPITAL, DNA, AND GENDER......Page 132 RAISING SOCIAL CAPITAL......Page 136 9 Women’s faculty experience......Page 139 THE JOB SEARCH......Page 141 GEOGRAPHICAL MOBILITY BARRIERS......Page 143 10 Dual male and female worlds of science......Page 145 TENURE......Page 149 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE......Page 150 TENURE STRESS......Page 153 11 Differences between women in science......Page 155 THE CONTRADICTIONS OF BEING AN ADVISOR......Page 156 THE INSTRUMENTAL STYLE......Page 160 THE RELATIONAL STYLE......Page 161 SUMMARY......Page 163 12 Social capital and faculty network relationships......Page 165 SOCIAL CAPITAL AND DEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS......Page 166 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN QUALITY OF DEPARTMENT RELATIONSHIPS......Page 168 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DEPARTMENT NETWORKS......Page 172 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTERDEPARTMENTAL NETWORKS......Page 174 PATTERNS OF MEN’S AND WOMEN’S INTERDEPARTMENTAL TIES......Page 178 ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL CAPITAL EXPLAINED BY DIFFERENCES IN OUR HUMAN CAPITAL?......Page 179 SOCIAL CAPITAL AND RESEARCH PRODUCTIVITY......Page 181 SUMMARY......Page 185 THE INSTRUMENTAL DEPARTMENT......Page 187 THE RELATIONAL DEPARTMENT......Page 189 Instrumental advisor/relational department......Page 192 Instrumental advisor/instrumental department......Page 193 TYPES OF PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 195 BOTTOM UP PROGRAMS......Page 197 TOP DOWN PROGRAMS......Page 201 IDIOSYNCRATIC PROGRAMS......Page 205 STRATEGY FOR DEPARTMENTAL REFORM......Page 207 CONCLUSION: INTERACTIONS AMONG PROGRAM TYPES AND DEPARTMENT CHANGE......Page 208 15 International comparisons......Page 211 WOMEN SCIENTISTS IN DEVELOPING AND SEMI-INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES......Page 212 Turkey: Class is stronger than gender......Page 213 Brazil: The significance of traditional gender roles......Page 214 Mexico: The effects of gender socialization......Page 215 Portugal: The loss of males......Page 216 Greece: Traditional gender roles......Page 217 GENDER DYNAMICS IN HIGHLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES: THE EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE......Page 219 Austria......Page 220 Finland: A ‘motherhood myth’......Page 221 Italy: Persisting marginality......Page 222 The Netherlands: A continuing dilemma......Page 223 Israel: A few women at the pinnacle......Page 224 Denmark: The difficulties of balancing......Page 225 WOMEN IN SCIENCE IN SOCIALIST COUNTRIES......Page 226 MOVEMENT TOWARD CHANGE......Page 228 THE U.K. EXPERIENCE......Page 229 16 Athena Unbound: Policy for women in science......Page 233 A MORAL AND LEGAL IMPERATIVE......Page 234 THE EFFECTS OF SHORTAGE......Page 237 ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS......Page 239 GENERATIONAL CHANGE......Page 241 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE......Page 244 MARGINAL DISADVANTAGES......Page 245 CONCLUSION: SCIENCE POLICY FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 249 BEYOND POLICY INTERVENTIONS......Page 255 SURVEY METHODOLOGY......Page 259 REGRESSION ANALYSIS......Page 260 DEPENDENT VARIABLE......Page 261 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES......Page 262 CONTROL VARIABLES......Page 263 Bibliography......Page 265 Index......Page 277 Why are there so few women scientists? Persisting differences between women's and men's experiences in science make this question as relevant today as it ever was. This book sets out to answer this question, and to propose solutions for the future. Based on extensive research, it emphasizes that science is an intensely social activity. Despite the scientific ethos of universalism and inclusion, scientists and their institutions are not immune to the prejudices of society as a whole. By presenting women's experiences at all key career stages - from childhood to retirement - the authors reveal the hidden barriers, subtle exclusions and unwritten rules of the scientific workplace, and the effects, both professional and personal, that these have on the female scientist. This important book should be read by all scientists - both male and female - and sociologists, as well as women thinking of embarking on a scientific career. Sets Out To Answer The Question Of Why There Are So Few Female Scientists. Introduction: Women In Science: Why So Few? -- The Science Career Pipeline -- Women And Science: Athena Bound -- Gender, Sex, And Science -- Selective Access -- Critical Transitions In The Graduate And Post-graduate Career Path -- Women's (and Men's) Graduate Experience In Science -- The Paradox Of Critical Mass For Women In Science -- The Kula Ring Of Scientific Success -- Women's Faculty Experience -- Dual Male And Female Worlds Of Science -- Differences Between Women In Science -- Social Capital And Faculty Network Relationships -- Negative And Positive Departmental Cultures -- Initiatives For Departmental Change -- International Comparisons -- Athena Unbound: Policy For Women In Science. Henry Etzkowitz, Carol Kemelgor, Brian Uzzi, With Michael Neushatz ... [et Al.]. Includes Bibliographical References (p. [257]-267) And Index. Why are there so few women scientists? This book sets out to answer this question, and to propose solutions for the future. Based on extensive research, it reveals the hidden barriers, subtle exclusions and unwritten rules of the scientific workplace, and the effects, both professional and personal, that these have An inquiry into why there are so few women scientists discusses the subtle factors that contribute to the marginalization of women scientists and compares the status of women scientists in different countries.