ASHRAE - 2022 ASHRAE Handbook_Refrigeration, SI Edition

SI_R2022 2022 ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration CHAPTERS --- CHAPTER 01: HALOCARBON REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS --- 1. Application 2. System Safety 3. Basic Piping Principles Refrigerant Line Velocities Refrigerant Flow Rates 4. Refrigerant Line Sizing Pressure Drop Considerations Location and Arrangement of Piping Protection Against Damage to Piping Piping Insulation Vibration and Noise in Piping Refrigerant Line Capacity Tables Equivalent Lengths of Valves and Fittings Oil Management in Refrigerant Lines 5. Piping at Multiple Compressors Suction Piping Discharge Piping Interconnecting Crankcases 6. Piping at Various System Components Flooded Fluid Coolers Refrigerant Feed Devices Direct-Expansion Fluid Chillers Direct-Expansion Air Coils Flooded Evaporators 7. Discharge (Hot-Gas) Lines 8. Defrost Gas Supply Lines 9. Heat Exchangers and Vessels Receivers Air-Cooled Condensers 10. Refrigeration Accessories Liquid-Suction Heat Exchangers Two-Stage Subcoolers Discharge Line Oil Separators Surge Drums or Accumulators Compressor Floodback Protection Refrigerant Driers and Moisture Indicators Strainers Liquid Indicators Oil Receivers Purge Units 11. Pressure Control for Refrigerant Condensers Water-Cooled Condensers Condenser-Water-Regulating Valves Water Bypass Evaporative Condensers Air-Cooled Condensers Microchannel Condensers 12. Keeping Liquid from Crankcase During Off Cycles Automatic Pumpdown Control (Direct-Expansion Air-Cooling Systems) Crankcase Oil Heater (Direct-Expansion Systems) Control for Direct-Expansion Water Chillers Effect of Short Operating Cycle 13. Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Full (100%) Unloading for Starting Full (100%) Unloading for Capacity Control 14. Minimizing Refrigerant Charge in Commercial Systems 15. Refrigerant Retrofitting 16. Temperature Glide References Table 1 Recommended Gas Line Velocities Table 2 Approximate Effect of Gas Line Pressure Drops on R-22 Compressor Capacity and Power Table 3 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 4 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 22 (Intermediate- or Low-Stage Duty) Table 5 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 6 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 7 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 8 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 9 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 10 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) for Pressure Drops of 0.02 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent Table 11 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) for Pressure Drops of 0.02 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent Table 12 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 13 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 14 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 15 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 16 Fitting Losses in Equivalent Metres of Pipe Table 17 Special Fitting Losses in Equivalent Metres of Pipe Table 18 Valve Losses in Equivalent Metres of Pipe Table 19 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Kilowatts for Oil Entrainment up Suction Risers (Copper Tubing, ASTM B88M Type B, Metric Size) Table 20 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Kilowatts for Oil Entrainment up Hot-Gas Risers (Copper Tubing, ASTM B88M Type B, Metric Size) Table 21 Refrigerant Flow Capacity Data For Defrost Lines Figures Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Kilowatt of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Kilowatt of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134 Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Fig. 6 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Fig. 7 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Fig. 8 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Fig. 9 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler Fig. 10 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Fig. 11 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 12 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Fig. 13 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Fig. 14 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 15 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Fig. 16 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 17 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Fig. 18 Double Hot-Gas Riser Fig. 19 Hot-Gas Loop Fig. 20 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 21 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) Fig. 22 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver Fig. 23 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 24 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Fig. 25 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 26 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Fig. 36 Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Fig. 37 Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 38 Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements --- CHAPTER 02: AMMONIA REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS --- History of Ammonia Refrigeration Ammonia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems 1. Equipment 1.1 Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Rotary Vane, Low-Stage Compressors Screw Compressors 1.2 Condensers Condenser and Receiver Piping Evaporative Condensers 1.3 Evaporators 1.4 Evaporator Piping Unit Cooler: Flooded Operation High-Side Float Control Low-Side Float Control 1.5 Vessels 1.6 Piping Recommended Material Fittings Pipe Joints Pipe Location Pipe Sizing 1.7 Controls Liquid Feed Control Controlling Load During Pulldown Operation at Varying Loads and Temperatures Electronic Control Lubricant Management Valves Isolated Line Sections Insulation and Vapor Retarders 2. Systems 2.1 Single-Stage Systems 2.2 Economized Systems 2.3 Multistage Systems Two-Stage Screw Compressor System Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems 2.4 Liquid Recirculation Systems Hot-Gas Defrost Double-Riser Designs for Large Evaporator Coils 2.5 Safety Considerations Avoiding Hydraulic Shock Hazards Related to System Cleanliness References Bibliography Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.005 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent Table 2 Suction, Discharge Line, and Liquid Capacities in Kilowatts for Ammonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 3 Liquid Ammonia Line Capacities in Kilowatts Figures Fig. 1 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel Fig. 2 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 3 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Fig. 4 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Fig. 5 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Optional Oil Pump Fig. 6 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Oil Cooling Fig. 7 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with External Heat Exchanger for Oil Cooling Fig. 8 Thermosiphon System with Receiver Mounted Above Oil Cooler Fig. 9 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 10 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 11 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 12 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver Fig. 13 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Fig. 14 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 15 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 16 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 17 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 18 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Fig. 19 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil Fig. 20 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float Fig. 21 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Fig. 22 Intercooler Fig. 23 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 24 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil Fig. 25 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 26 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 27 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High-Pressure Pump Fig. 28 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia Fig. 29 Electronic Liquid Level Control Fig. 30 Noncondensable Gas Purger Unit Fig. 31 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Fig. 32 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Fig. 33 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Fig. 34 Screw Compressor with Economizer/Receiver Fig. 35 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Fig. 36 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Fig. 37 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Fig. 38 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 39 Demand Defrost Cycle Fig. 40 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 41 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer Fig. 42 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 43 Recirculated Liquid Return System Fig. 44 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers --- CHAPTER 03: CARBON DIOXIDE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS --- 1. History 2. System Design Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration CO2 Cascade System CO2/HFC Cascade Systems Ammonia/CO2 Cascade Refrigeration System System Design Pressures Valves CO2 Monitoring Water in CO2 Systems 3. System Safety 5. Heat Exchangers and Vessels Recirculator Cascade Heat Exchanger 6. Compressors for CO2 Refrigeration Systems Transcritical Compressors for Commercial Refrigeration Compressors for Industrial Applications 7. Lubricants 8. Evaporators 9. Defrost Electric Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost Reverse-Cycle Defrost Bibliography Acknowledgment Table 1 Refrigerant Data Table 2 Comparative Refrigerant Performance per Kilowatt of Refrigeration Table 3 Pipe Size Comparison Between NH3 and CO2 Table 4 Carbon Steel Pipe Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Carbon Dioxide with Pressure Drops of 0.005 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent Table 5 Carbon Steel Pipe Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Carbon Dioxide Table 6 Carbon Steel Pipe Liquid Carbon Dioxide Line Capacities in Kilowatts Table 7 Copper Tube Suction Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Carbon Dioxide with Pressure Drops of 0.005 and 0.01 K/m Equivalent Table 8 Copper Tube Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Kilowatts for Carbon Dioxide Table 9 Copper Tube Liquid Carbon Dioxide Line Capacities in Kilowatts Figures Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Fig. 3 Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration Cycle in Appliances and Vending Machines Fig. 4 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water Fig. 5 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Fig. 6 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Fig. 7 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404A and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Fig. 8 Dual-Temperature Ammonia (R-717) Cascade System Fig. 9 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants Fig. 10 Water Solubility in CO2 Fig. 11 Pressure Drop for Various Refrigerants Fig. 12 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart --- CHAPTER 04: LIQUID OVERFEED SYSTEMS --- Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages 1. Overfeed System Operation Mechanical Pump Gas Pump 2. Refrigerant Distribution 3. Oil in System 4. Circulating Rate 5. Pump Selection and Installation Types of Pumps Installing and Connecting Mechanical Pumps 6. Controls 7. Evaporator Design Considerations Top Feed Versus Bottom Feed 8. Refrigerant Charge 9. Start-Up and Operation Operating Costs and Efficiency 10. Line Sizing 11. Low-Pressure Receiver Sizing References Bibliography Table 1 Recommended Minimum Circulating Rate Table 2 Maximum Effective Separation Velocities for R-717, R-22, R-12, and R-502, with Steady Flow Conditions Figures Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 3 Double-Pumper-Drum System Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator --- CHAPTER 05: COMPONENT BALANCING INREFRIGERATION SYSTEMS --- 1. Refrigeration System 2. Components 3. Selecting Design Balance Points 4. Energy and Mass Balances 5. System Performance Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve --- CHAPTER 06: REFRIGERANT SYSTEM CHEMISTRY --- 1. Refrigerants Refrigerant Standards 2. Lubricants Mineral Oils Alkylbenzenes (ABs) Polyol Esters (POEs) Polyalkylene Glycols (PAGs) Polyalphaolefins Polyvinyl Ethers (PVEs) 3. System Reactions Thermal Stability Hydrolysis of Halogenated Refrigerants and Polyol Ester Lubricants Oxidation of Oils Effects of Lubricant Additives Copper Plating Corrosion Effects of Unsaturated Contaminants on HFC or HFO Refrigerants and Lubricants 4. Compatibility of Materials Process Chemicals Brazing Fluxes Electrical and Ground Insulation Magnet Wire Insulation Varnishes Elastomers Plastics Desiccants Material Compatibility Involving HFO Refrigerants Material Compatibility Involving Refrigerant Blends 5. Chemical Evaluation Techniques Sealed-Tube or Pressure Vessel Material Tests Component Tests System Tests References Bibliography Table 1 API Mineral Base Oil Designations Table 2 Inherent Thermal Stability of Halocarbon Refrigerants Table 3 Rate of Hydrolysis in Water (Grams per Litre of Water per Year) Table 4 Maximum Temperature tmax for Hermetic Wire Enamels in R-22 at 450 kPa Table 5 Effect of Liquid R-22 on Abrasion Resistance (Cycles to Failure) Figures Fig. 1 Some Typical Chemical Substructure Components of Mineral Oils Fig. 2 Representative Chemical Structure of Alkylbenzene (AB) Fig. 3 General Structures of Polyol Ester (POE) Refrigeration Lubricants Fig. 4 Representative Chemical Structure of Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG) Fig. 5 General Structures of Polyalphaolefin (PAO) Refrigeration Lubricant Fig. 6 General Structure of Polyvinyl Ether (PVE) Refrigeration Lubricant Fig. 7 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 8 Stability of Refrigerant 12 Control System Fig. 9 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials --- CHAPTER 07: CONTROL OF MOISTURE AND OTHER CONTAMINANTSIN REFRIGERANT SYSTEMS --- 1. Moisture Sources of Moisture Effects of Moisture Drying Methods Moisture Indicators Moisture Measurement Desiccants Desiccant Applications Driers Drier Selection 2. Other Contaminants Metallic Contaminants and Dirt Organic Contaminants: Sludge, Wax, and Tars Residual Cleaning Agents Noncondensable Gases Motor Burnouts Field Assembly 3. System Cleanup Procedure After Hermetic Motor Burnout Procedure Special System Characteristics and Procedures 4. Contaminant Control During Retrofit 5. Chiller Decontamination 6. System Sampling Testing and Rating References Standards Other Publications Bibliography Table 1 Solubility of Water in Liquid Phase of Certain Refrigerants, ppm (by mass) Table 2 Distribution Ratio of Water Between Vapor and Liquid Phases of Certain Refrigerants Table 3 Laboratory Reactivation of Desiccants Figures Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Liquid R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 24°C Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Liquid R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 24°C Fig. 3 Temperature Effect on Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in Liquid R-134a at 52°C Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in Liquid R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 24°C Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in Liquid R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 52°C Fig. 7 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in Liquid R-410A at 52°C --- CHAPTER 08: EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEM DEHYDRATING, CHARGING, AND TESTING --- 1. Dehydration (Moisture Removal) Sources of Moisture Dehydration by Heat, Vacuum, or Dry Air Combination Methods 2. Moisture Measurement 3. Charging 4. Testing for Leaks Leak Detection Methods Special Considerations 5. Performance Testing Compressor Testing Testing Complete Systems Testing of Components References Bibliography Table 1 Example Factory Dehydration and Moisture-Measuring Methods for Refrigeration Components and Systems --- CHAPTER 09: REFRIGERANT CONTAINMENT, RECOVERY,RECYCLING, AND RECLAMATION --- 1. Emissions Types 2. Design 3. Installation 4. Servicing and Decommissioning 5. Training 6. Leak Detection Global Detection Local Detection Automated Performance Monitoring Systems 7. Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation Installation and Service Practices Contaminants Recovery Recycling Equipment Standards Special Considerations and Equipment for Handling Multiple Refrigerants Reclamation Purity Standards References Bibliography Table 1 Leak Test Sensitivity Comparison Figures Fig. 1 Recovery Components Fig. 2 Single-Pass Recycling Fig. 3 Multiple-Pass Recycling --- CHAPTER 10: INSULATION SYSTEMS FOR REFRIGERANT PIPING --- 1. Design Considerations for Below- Ambient Refrigerant Piping 2. Insulation Properties at Below-Ambient Temperatures 3. Insulation System Moisture Resistance 4. Insulation Systems Pipe Preparation for Corrosion Control Insulation Materials Insulation Joint Sealant/Adhesive Vapor Retarders Weather Barrier Jacketing 5. Installation Guidelines 6. Maintenance of Insulation Systems References Bibliography Table 1 Protective Coating Systems for Carbon Steel Piping Table 2 Properties of Insulation Materials Table 3 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions, mm Table 4 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions, mm Table 5 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions, mm Table 6 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions, mm Table 7 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions, mm Table 8 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions, mm Table 9 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions, mm Table 10 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions, mm Table 11 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions, mm Table 12 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions, mm Table 13 Suggested Pipe Support Spacing for Straight Horizontal Runs Table 14 Shield/Saddle Dimensions for Insulated Pipe and Tubing Table 15 COLTE Values for Various Materials --- CHAPTER 11: REFRIGERANT CONTROL DEVICES --- 1. Control Switches 1.1 Pressure Switches 1.2 Temperature Switches (Thermostats) 1.3 Differential Switches 1.4 Float Switches Operation and Selection Application 2. Control Sensors 2.1 Pressure Transducers 2.2 Thermistors 2.3 Resistance Temperature Detectors 2.4 Thermocouples 2.5 Liquid Level Sensors Operation and Selection 3. Control Valves 3.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valves Operation Capacity Thermostatic Charges Type of Equalization Alternative Construction Types Application 3.2 Electric Expansion Valves 4. Regulating and Throttling Valves 4.1 Evaporator-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation Selection Application 4.2 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves Operation Selection Application 4.3 Suction-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation Selection Application 4.4 Condenser-Pressure- Regulating Valves Operation Application 4.5 Discharge Bypass Valves Operation Selection Application 4.6 High-Side Float Valves Operation Selection Application 4.7 Low-Side Float Valves Operation Selection Application 4.8 Solenoid Valves Operation Application 4.9 Condensing Water Regulators Two-Way Regulators Three-Way Regulators 4.10 Check Valves Seat Materials Applications 4.11 Relief Devices Safety Relief Valves Functional Relief Valves Other Safety Relief Devices 5. Discharge-Line Lubricant Separators Selection Application 6. Capillary Tubes Theory System Design Factors Capacity Balance Characteristic Optimum Selection and Refrigerant Charge Application 6.1 Adiabatic Capillary Tube Selection Procedure Sample Calculations 6.2 Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Selection Procedure Capillary Tube Selection Generalized Prediction Equations Sample Calculations 7. Short-Tube Restrictors Application Selection References Bibliography Table 1 Various Types of Pressure Switches Table 2 Values of f for Discharge Capacity of Pressure Relief Devices Table 3 Capillary Tube Dimensionless Parameters Table 4 Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Dimensionless Parameters Figures Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R-410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R-410A Charge in Bulb Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves Fig. 14 Pressure/Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main Is Above Evaporator Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width-Modulated Valve Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Gear Drive with Stem Seal Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator (Self-Powered) Fig. 27 Pilot-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator (High-Pressure-Driven) Fig. 28 Evaporator Pressure Regulators in Multiple System Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Heating Mode) Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve (Shown in Cooling Mode) Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor  for R-134a Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R-410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor  for R-410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor  for R-410A for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor  for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor  for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 12.7 mm, D = 1.35 mm, Subcooling 13.9 K Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 12.7 mm, D = 1.35 mm, Sharp-Edged Fig. 67 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Inlet Chamfering (R-22) --- CHAPTER 12 : LUBRICANTS IN REFRIGERANT SYSTEMS --- 1. Tests for Boundary and Mixed Lubrication 2. Refrigeration Lubricant Requirements 3. Synthetic Lubricants Alkylbenzenes (ABs) Polyalkylene Glycols (PAGs) Polyalphaolefins (PAOs) Polyol Esters (POE) Polyvinyl Ethers (PVEs) 4. Mineral Oil Composition and Component Characteristics Component Characteristics Applications 5. Lubricant Additives 6. Lubricant Properties Viscosity and Viscosity Grades Viscosity Index Pressure/Viscosity Coefficient and Compressibility Factor Density Relative Molecular Mass Pour Point Volatility: Flash and Fire Points Vapor Pressure Aniline Point Solubility of Refrigerants in Oils 7. Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions Density Thermodynamics and Transport Phenomena Pressure/Temperature/Solubility Relations Mutual Solubility Effects of Partial Miscibility in Refrigerant Systems Solubility Curves and Miscibility Diagrams Effect of Lubricant Type on Solubility and Miscibility Effect of Refrigerant Type on Miscibility with Lubricants Solubilities and Viscosities of Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions 8. Lubricant Influence on Lubricant Return 9. Lubricant Influence on System Performance 10. Wax Separation (Floc Tests) 11. Solubility of Hydrocarbon Gases 12. Lubricants for Carbon Dioxide 13. Solubility of Water in Lubricants 14. Solubility of Air in Lubricants 15. Foaming and Antifoam Agents 16. Oxidation Resistance 17. Chemical Stability Effect of Refrigerants and Lubricant Types 18. Retrofitting from CFC/HCFC to Other Refrigerants Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants Flushing Bibliography References Table 1 Typical Properties of Refrigeration Lubricants at ISO 32 Viscosity Grade Table 2 Typical Physical Properties and Composition of PAO Lubricants Table 3 Carboxylic Acids Commonly Used in the Manufacture of Polyol Ester Refrigeration Lubricants Table 4 Examples of Polyol Ester Lubricants Used in Refrigeration Table 5 API Mineral Base Oil Designations Table 6 Viscosity System for Industrial Fluid Lubricants (ASTM D2422) Table 7 Examples of Lubricant Types and Viscosity Ranges as Function of Refrigerant and Application* Table 8 Increase in Vapor Pressure and Temperature Table 9 Absorption of Low-Solubility Refrigerant Gases in Oil Table 10 Mutual Solubility of Refrigerants and Mineral Oil Table 11 Critical Miscibility Values of R-22 with Different Oils Table 12 Critical Solution Temperatures for Selected Refrigerant/Lubricant Pairs Figures Fig. 1 Representative Chemical Structure of Alkylbenzene (AB) Fig. 2 Representative Chemical Structure of Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG) Fig. 3 Representative Idealized Chemical Structures of Polyalphaolefins Fig. 4 Polyols Used for Manufacture of Polyol Ester (POE) Refrigeration Lubricants Fig. 5 General Chemical Structure of Polyvinyl Ether (PVE) Fig. 6 Some Typical Chemical Substructure Components of Mineral Oils Fig. 7 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants Fig. 8 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Fig. 9 Density Correction Factors Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polyalkylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyalkylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 15 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 16 Density as F