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Through eight outstanding editions, Kanski's Clinical Ophthalmology has been the classic specialty textbook, providing the perfect ophthalmology foundation for trainees and a valuable reference source for experienced practitioners. Building on the previous edition by Dr. Brad Bowling, Dr. John Salmon from Oxford University has comprehensively revised the textbook. The 9th Edition retains Dr. Kanski's highly effective format of succinct text and visually dynamic presentation, providing authoritative, focused guidance on the diagnosis and management of ophthalmic disorders. Extremely well organized and comprehensive in scope, this visually stunning book reflects the latest advances in the field, facilitating quick comprehension to enhance learning, aid exam preparation and guide clinical practice. As a general ophthalmic textbook, this is the gold standard. Uses targeted text, bulleted lists, tables, and visual aids to highlight salient points across all ophthalmology subspecialties. Includes 2,600 illustrations, including more than 1,000 new images of common and rare conditions and arrows to show the exact pathology. Features detailed updates on new therapeutic interventions for neurological disease and ocular tumours; new imaging techniques such as OCT, OCT angiography, and MRI; and new topics such as circadian rhythms, graft vs host disease and the effects of Ebola virus infection on the eye. Presents examination techniques in a new, separate chapter and contains new "tips" on key issues in every chapter. Provides up-to-date information on hot topics such as intravitreal treatment with anti-VEGF agents for macular disease, genetic advances in hereditary retinal dystrophies, the use of biological agents in the treatment of uveitis and scleritis and new surgical advances such as MIGS for glaucoma and limbal stem cell grafting. Enhanced eBook version included with purchase. Your enhanced eBook allows you to access all of the text, figures, and references from the book on a variety of devices. Cover Kanski's Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach Copyright Contents Dedication In Memoriam Preface to the Ninth Edition Abbreviations 1 Examination Techniques Introduction Psychophysical tests Visual acuity Snellen visual acuity Very poor visual acuity LogMAR acuity LogMAR charts Near visual acuity Contrast sensitivity Amsler grid Charts Technique Light brightness comparison test Photostress test Colour vision testing Introduction Colour vision tests Plus lens test Perimetry Definitions Testing algorithms Threshold Suprathreshold Fast algorithms Testing patterns Analysis Reliability indices Sensitivity values Summary values Computer analysis of serial fields High-sensitivity field modalities Sources of error Microperimetry Slit lamp biomicroscopy of the anterior segment Direct illumination Scleral scatter Retroillumination Specular reflection Fundus examination Direct ophthalmoscopy Technique Slit lamp biomicroscopy Technique Goldmann three-mirror examination Head-mounted binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy Fundus drawing Tonometry Goldmann tonometry Principles Technique Sources of error Other forms of tonometry Ocular response analyser and corneal hysteresis Gonioscopy Introduction Overview Optical principles Disinfection Indirect gonioscopy Non-indentation gonioscopy Indentation (dynamic, compression) gonioscopy Direct gonioscopy Identification of angle structures Pathological findings Central corneal thickness 2 Eyelids Introduction Anatomy Epidermis Dermis Terminology Clinical Histological General considerations Non-neoplastic lesions Chalazion (meibomian cyst) Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Other eyelid cysts Xanthelasma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Benign epidermal tumours Squamous cell papilloma Seborrhoeic keratosis Actinic keratosis Benign pigmented lesions Freckle Congenital melanocytic naevus Acquired melanocytic naevus Diagnosis Treatment Benign adnexal tumours Syringoma Pilomatricoma Miscellaneous benign tumours Capillary haemangioma Port-wine stain Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Sturge–Weber syndrome Pyogenic granuloma Neurofibroma Malignant tumours Rare predisposing conditions Basal cell carcinoma Introduction Histopathology Clinical features Squamous cell carcinoma Introduction Histopathology Clinical features Keratoacanthoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Sebaceous gland carcinoma Introduction Clinical features Lentigo maligna and melanoma Introduction Lentigo maligna Melanoma Merkel cell carcinoma Kaposi sarcoma Treatment of malignant tumours Biopsy Surgical excision Reconstruction Laissez-faire Radiotherapy Cryotherapy Disorders of the eyelashes Misdirected lashes Introduction Clinical features Treatment Eyelash ptosis Trichomegaly Madarosis Poliosis Allergic disorders Acute allergic oedema Contact dermatitis Atopic dermatitis Immune-related inflammation Dermatomyositis Systemic monoclonal antibody therapy Bacterial infections External hordeolum Impetigo Erysipelas Necrotizing fasciitis Viral infections Molluscum contagiosum Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Herpes zoster ophthalmicus Herpes simplex Introduction Treatment Blepharitis Chronic blepharitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Phthiriasis palpebrarum Tick infestation of the eyelid Angular blepharitis Childhood blepharokeratoconjunctivitis Ptosis Classification Clinical evaluation General Pseudoptosis Measurements Associated signs Simple congenital ptosis Diagnosis Treatment Marcus Gunn jaw-winking syndrome Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Third nerve misdirection syndromes Involutional ptosis Mechanical ptosis Surgery Anatomy Conjunctiva–Müller resection Levator advancement (resection) Brow (frontalis) suspension Ectropion Involutional ectropion Introduction Treatment Cicatricial ectropion Paralytic ectropion/facial nerve palsy Introduction Treatment Mechanical ectropion Entropion Involutional entropion Introduction Treatment Cicatricial entropion Miscellaneous acquired disorders Varix Dermatochalasis Floppy eyelid syndrome Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Blepharochalasis Eyelid imbrication syndrome Upper lid retraction Lower lid retraction Cosmetic eyelid and periocular surgery Involutional changes Non-surgical techniques Botulinum toxin injection to periocular muscles Tissue fillers Skin resurfacing Surgical techniques Upper eyelid blepharoplasty Lower eyelid blepharoplasty Brow ptosis correction Congenital malformations Epicanthic folds Telecanthus Blepharophimosis, ptosis and epicanthus inversus syndrome Epiblepharon Congenital entropion Coloboma Cryptophthalmos Euryblepharon Microblepharon Ablepharon Congenital upper lid eversion Ankyloblepharon filiforme adnatum 3 Lacrimal Drainage System Introduction Anatomy Physiology Causes of a watering eye Evaluation History External examination Fluorescein disappearance test Lacrimal irrigation Jones dye testing Contrast dacryocystography Nuclear lacrimal scintigraphy CT and MRI Internal nasal examination Acquired obstruction Conjunctivochalasis Primary punctal stenosis Secondary punctal stenosis Canalicular obstruction Nasolacrimal duct obstruction Dacryolithiasis Congenital obstruction Nasolacrimal duct obstruction Congenital dacryocoele Chronic canaliculitis Dacryocystitis Acute dacryocystitis Chronic dacryocystitis 4 Orbit Introduction Anatomy Clinical features Symptoms Soft tissue involvement Proptosis Enophthalmos Ophthalmoplegia Dynamic properties Fundus changes Investigation Thyroid eye disease Introduction Thyrotoxicosis Risk factors for ophthalmopathy Pathogenesis of ophthalmopathy Clinical features Introduction Soft tissue involvement Lid retraction Proptosis Restrictive myopathy Optic neuropathy Investigations Treatment Infections Preseptal cellulitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Bacterial orbital cellulitis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Rhino-orbital mucormycosis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Non-infective inflammatory disease Idiopathic orbital inflammatory disease Diagnosis Treatment Orbital myositis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Acute dacryoadenitis Tolosa–Hunt syndrome Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Non-neoplastic vascular abnormalities Cavernous sinus thrombosis Carotid–cavernous fistula Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Cystic lesions Dacryops Dermoid cyst Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Sinus mucocoele Encephalocoele Vascular tumours Varices Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Lymphangioma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Capillary haemangioma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Cavernous haemangioma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Lacrimal gland tumours Pleomorphic lacrimal gland adenoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Lacrimal gland carcinoma Diagnosis Treatment Neural tumours Optic nerve glioma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Optic nerve sheath meningioma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Plexiform neurofibroma Isolated neurofibroma Lymphoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Rhabdomyosarcoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Metastatic tumours Adult metastatic tumours Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Childhood metastatic tumours Neuroblastoma Myeloid sarcoma Langerhans cell histiocytosis Orbital invasion from adjacent structures Sinus tumours Bony invasion Orbital invasion from eyelid, conjunctival and intraocular tumours The anophthalmic socket Surgical procedures Enucleation Evisceration Exenteration Rehabilitation Cosmetic shell Orbital implants Ocular prosthesis Craniosynostoses 5 Dry Eye Introduction Definitions Physiology Tear film constituents Spread of the tear film Lipid layer Aqueous layer Mucous layer Regulation of tear film components Mechanism of disease Classification Aqueous-deficient Evaporative Effect of environmental factors Sjögren syndrome Clinical features Symptoms Signs Investigation Tear film break-up time Schirmer test Ocular surface staining Other investigations Treatment Strategy Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Tear substitutes Punctal occlusion Anti-inflammatory agents Contact lenses Optimization of environmental humidity Miscellaneous options 6 Conjunctiva Introduction Anatomy Histology Clinical features of conjunctival inflammation Symptoms Discharge Conjunctival reaction Lymphadenopathy Bacterial conjunctivitis Acute bacterial conjunctivitis Diagnosis Treatment Giant fornix syndrome Adult chlamydial conjunctivitis Pathogenesis Urogenital infection Diagnosis Treatment Trachoma Pathogenesis Diagnosis Management Neonatal conjunctivitis Causes Diagnosis Treatment Viral conjunctivitis Introduction Presentation Signs Investigation Treatment Allergic conjunctivitis Acute allergic conjunctivitis Seasonal and perennial allergic conjunctivitis Diagnosis Treatment Vernal keratoconjunctivitis Pathogenesis Classification Diagnosis Atopic keratoconjunctivitis Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment of VKC and AKC General measures Local treatment Systemic treatment Surgery Non-allergic eosinophilic conjunctivitis Contact allergic blepharoconjunctivitis Giant (mechanically induced) papillary conjunctivitis Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Conjunctivitis in blistering mucocutaneous disease Mucous membrane pemphigoid Introduction Ocular features Systemic features Systemic treatment Local treatment Reconstructive surgery Stevens–Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis (Lyell syndrome) Introduction Ocular features Systemic features Systemic treatment Ocular treatment Graft-versus-host disease Introduction Treatment Miscellaneous disorders of the conjunctiva Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Ligneous conjunctivitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome Factitious conjunctivitis Introduction Diagnosis Management Degenerations Pinguecula Introduction Treatment Pterygium Introduction Clinical features Treatment Concretions Conjunctivochalasis Retention (primary epithelial inclusion) cyst Subconjunctival haemorrhage 7 Cornea Introduction Anatomy and physiology General Dimensions Structure Signs of corneal disease Superficial Deep Documentation of clinical signs Specular microscopy Corneal topography Principles of treatment Control of infection and inflammation Promotion of epithelial healing Bacterial keratitis Pathogenesis Pathogens Risk factors Clinical features Investigations Treatment General considerations Local therapy Systemic antibiotics Management of apparent treatment failure Perforation Endophthalmitis Visual rehabilitation Fungal keratitis Introduction Pathogenesis Predisposing factors Candida and filamentous keratitis Clinical features Investigations Treatment Microsporidial keratitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Herpes simplex keratitis Introduction Herpes simplex virus (HSV) Primary infection Recurrent infection Epithelial keratitis Clinical features Treatment Disciform keratitis Clinical features Treatment Necrotizing stromal keratitis Neurotrophic keratopathy Iridocyclitis Other considerations Prophylaxis Complications Keratoplasty Herpes zoster ophthalmicus Introduction Pathogenesis Mechanisms of ocular involvement Risk of ocular involvement Acute shingles General features Treatment Prevention Eye disease Acute eye disease Chronic eye disease Relapsing eye disease Post-herpetic neuralgia Interstitial keratitis Introduction Syphilitic IK Congenital syphilis Presentation of syphilitic IK Cogan syndrome Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Protozoan keratitis Acanthamoeba Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Helminthic keratitis Onchocerciasis Bacterial hypersensitivity- mediated corneal disease Marginal keratitis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Phlyctenulosis Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Rosacea Introduction Ocular rosacea Peripheral corneal ulceration/thinning Introduction Mooren ulcer Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Peripheral ulcerative keratitis associated with systemic autoimmune disease Introduction Clinical features Treatment Terrien marginal degeneration Diagnosis Treatment Neurotrophic keratopathy Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Exposure keratopathy Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Miscellaneous keratopathies Infectious crystalline keratopathy Thygeson superficial punctate keratitis Diagnosis Treatment Filamentary keratopathy Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Recurrent corneal epithelial erosion Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Xerophthalmia Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Corneal ectasia Keratoconus Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Pellucid marginal degeneration Diagnosis Treatment Keratoglobus Corneal dystrophy Epithelial dystrophies Cogan (epithelial basement membrane) dystrophy Meesmann epithelial dystrophy Others Bowman layer/anterior stromal dystrophies Reis–Bücklers corneal dystrophy Thiel–Behnke corneal dystrophy Stromal dystrophies Lattice corneal dystrophy, TGFB1 type Lattice corneal dystrophy, gelsolin type Granular corneal dystrophy, type 1 (classic) Granular corneal dystrophy, type 2 Macular corneal dystrophy Schnyder (crystalline) corneal dystrophy François central cloudy dystrophy Others Descemet membrane and endothelial dystrophies Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy Posterior polymorphous corneal dystrophy Congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy Corneal degeneration Age-related degeneration Arcus senilis Vogt limbal girdle Cornea farinata Crocodile shagreen West Indian punctate keratopathy Lipid keratopathy Band keratopathy Spheroidal degeneration Salzmann nodular degeneration Advancing wave-like epitheliopathy Metabolic keratopathy Cystinosis Mucopolysaccharidoses Wilson disease Lecithin-cholesterol-acyltransferase deficiency Immunoprotein deposition Tyrosinaemia type 2 Fabry disease Contact lenses Therapeutic uses Optical Promotion of epithelial healing Pain relief Preservation of corneal integrity Miscellaneous indications Complications Mechanical and hypoxic keratitis Immune response (hypersensitivity) keratitis Toxic keratitis Suppurative keratitis Contact lens-associated giant papillary conjunctivitis Congenital anomalies of the cornea and globe Microcornea Microphthalmos Nanophthalmos Anophthalmos Megalocornea Sclerocornea Cornea plana Keratectasia Posterior keratoconus 8 Corneal and Refractive Surgery Keratoplasty Introduction General indications Donor tissue Recipient prognostic factors Penetrating keratoplasty Postoperative management Postoperative complications Corneal graft rejection Superficial lamellar keratoplasty Deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty Endothelial keratoplasty Limbal stem cell grafting Keratoprostheses Refractive procedures Introduction Correction of myopia Correction of hypermetropia (hyperopia) Correction of astigmatism Correction of presbyopia Laser refractive procedures Laser in situ keratomileusis Surface ablation procedures Refractive lenticule extraction 9 Episclera and Sclera Anatomy Episcleritis Simple episcleritis Nodular episcleritis Immune-Mediated Scleritis Anterior non-necrotizing scleritis Diffuse Nodular Anterior necrotizing scleritis with inflammation Clinical features Investigations Complications of anterior scleritis Scleromalacia perforans Posterior scleritis Diagnosis Differential diagnosis Important systemic associations of scleritis Rheumatoid arthritis Granulomatosis with polyangiitis Relapsing polychondritis Polyarteritis nodosa Crohn disease Treatment of immune-mediated scleritis Porphyria Infectious Scleritis Causes Treatment Scleral Discolouration Alkaptonuria Haemochromatosis Blue sclera Osteogenesis imperfecta Ehlers–Danlos syndrome type VI Miscellaneous Conditions Congenital ocular melanocytosis Idiopathic sclerochoroidal calcification Scleral hyaline plaque and senile scleromalacia 10 Lens Acquired cataract Age-related cataract Subcapsular cataract Nuclear sclerotic cataract Cortical cataract Christmas tree cataract Cataract maturity Cataract in systemic disease Diabetes mellitus Myotonic dystrophy Atopic dermatitis Neurofibromatosis type 2 Secondary cataract Chronic anterior uveitis Acute congestive angle closure High myopia Hereditary fundus dystrophies Secondary to medication Traumatic cataract Management of age-related cataract Preoperative considerations Indications for surgery Systemic preoperative assessment Ophthalmic preoperative assessment Informed consent Biometry Postoperative refraction Intraocular lenses Positioning Design Anaesthesia Manual cataract surgery Phacoemulsification Introduction Phacodynamics Pump type Handpiece Ophthalmic viscosurgical devices Technique Femtosecond lasers in cataract surgery Operative complications Rupture of the posterior lens capsule Posterior loss of lens fragments Posterior dislocation of IOL Suprachoroidal haemorrhage Acute postoperative endophthalmitis Pathogenesis Prophylaxis Clinical features Differential diagnosis Identification of pathogens Treatment Subsequent management Delayed-onset postoperative endophthalmitis Pathogenesis Diagnosis Posterior capsular opacification Diagnosis Treatment Anterior capsular fibrosis and contraction Miscellaneous postoperative complications Cystoid macular oedema Dysphotopsia Corneal decompensation Ptosis Malposition of the IOL Retinal detachment Refractive ‘surprise’ Congenital cataract Aetiology Associated metabolic disorders Galactosaemia Lowe syndrome Fabry disease Mannosidosis Other metabolic disorders Associated intrauterine infections Rubella Toxoplasmosis Cytomegalovirus infection Varicella Others Other systemic associations Down syndrome (trisomy 21) Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) Miscellaneous Management Ocular assessment Systemic investigations Treatment Postoperative complications Visual rehabilitation Ectopia lentis Introduction Causes Without systemic associations With systemic associations Management Abnormalities of lens shape Anterior lenticonus Posterior lenticonus Lentiglobus Microspherophakia and microphakia Coloboma 11 Glaucoma Introduction Aqueous production Aqueous outflow Anatomy Physiology Intraocular pressure Concept of normal intraocular pressure Fluctuation Measurement of IOP Ocular hypertension Definition Risk factors for developing glaucoma in OHT Genetics of ocular hypertension Clinical evaluation Pre-perimetric glaucoma Management Overview of glaucoma Definition Goal of treatment Classification Epidemiology Natural history of open-angle glaucoma Primary open-angle glaucoma Introduction Definition Risk factors Genetics Pathogenesis of glaucomatous optic neuropathy Screening Diagnosis History Examination Evaluation of the optic nerve head Normal optic nerve head Changes in glaucoma Imaging in glaucoma Visual field defects (see Ch. 1, perimetry) Management Patient instruction Treatment goals Medical therapy Normal-tension glaucoma Introduction Pathogenesis Risk factors Differential diagnosis Clinical features Treatment Primary angle-closure glaucoma Introduction Overview Gonioscopy Grading of angle width Shaffer system. Other systems Classification Mechanism Risk factors Diagnosis Symptoms Signs Investigation Differential diagnosis of acute IOP elevation Treatment APAC PACS PAC and PACG Classification of secondary glaucoma Open-angle Closed angle Pseudoexfoliation Introduction Pathogenesis Clinical features Treatment Pigment dispersion syndrome and pigmentary glaucoma Introduction Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Acute bilateral iris pigment loss with raised IOP Neovascular glaucoma Pathogenesis Causes Clinical features Treatment Prognosis Inflammatory glaucoma Introduction Overview Diagnostic dilemmas Angle-closure glaucoma with pupillary block Pathogenesis Diagnosis Angle-closure glaucoma without pupillary block Open-angle glaucoma In acute anterior uveitis In chronic anterior uveitis Treatment Medical Laser iridotomy Surgery Posner–Schlossman syndrome (PSS) Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Steroid-induced glaucoma Introduction Risk factors Treatment Lens-related glaucoma Phacolytic glaucoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Phacomorphic glaucoma Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Pupillary block from disruption of lens position Causes Diagnosis Treatment Traumatic glaucoma Hyphaema Introduction Treatment Angle recession glaucoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Ghost cell ‘glaucoma’ Pathogenesis Clinical features Treatment Iridocorneal endothelial syndrome Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Glaucoma associated with intraocular tumours Glaucoma secondary to epithelial ingrowth Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Iridoschisis Primary congenital glaucoma Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Differential diagnosis Iridocorneal dysgenesis Posterior embryotoxon Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome Introduction Clinical features Peters anomaly Introduction Clinical features Aniridia Genetics Diagnosis Treatment Glaucoma in phacomatoses Sturge–Weber syndrome Introduction Treatment Neurofibromatosis type 1 Medical treatment of glaucoma Introduction Prostaglandin derivatives Introduction Agents Side effects Beta-blockers Introduction Side effects Agents Alpha-2 agonists Introduction Agents Topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors Introduction Agents Miotics Introduction Agents Combined preparations New topical medications Systemic carbonic anhydrase inhibitors Introduction Agents Side effects Osmotic agents Introduction Agents Laser treatment of glaucoma Laser trabeculoplasty Introduction Indications Technique Laser iridotomy Introduction Technique Complications Diode laser cycloablation Indications Technique of trans-scleral cyclophotocoagulation Technique of endo-cyclophotocoagulation Complications Laser iridoplasty Technique Trabeculectomy Indications Technique Ex-PressTM mini-shunt Antimetabolites in filtration surgery Indications 5-fluorouracil Mitomycin C Bevacizumab Shallow anterior chamber Pupillary block Overfiltration Malignant glaucoma Failure of filtration Diagnosis Causes Management Late bleb leakage Bleb-associated bacterial infection and endophthalmitis Blebitis Treatment Endophthalmitis Non-penetrating glaucoma surgery Overview Indications Technique Minimally invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS) Indications Complications Results of surgery Drainage shunts Shunts using episcleral explants Introduction Indications Complications Results 12 Uveitis Classification Clinical features Anterior uveitis Introduction Clinical features Posterior uveitis Investigation Treatment Immunomodulatory therapy for non-infectious uveitis Introduction Indications Side effects of medication Classes of medication Uveitis in spondyloarthropathies Ankylosing spondylitis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Reactive arthritis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Psoriatic arthritis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Fuchs uveitis syndrome Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Uveitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Uveitis in bowel disease Ulcerative colitis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Crohn disease Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Whipple disease Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Uveitis in renal disease Tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features IgA nephropathy Intermediate uveitis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Vogt–koyanagi–harada (VKH) syndrome Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Sympathetic ophthalmitis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Lens-induced uveitis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Sarcoidosis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Investigation Treatment Behçet disease Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Investigation Treatment Parasitic uveitis Toxoplasmosis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Investigation Treatment Toxocariasis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Ocular treatment Onchocerciasis Introduction Clinical features Treatment Cysticercosis Introduction Clinical features Treatment Diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis (DUSN) Introduction Clinical features Treatment Viral uveitis Uveitis in human immunodeficiency virus infection Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Cytomegalovirus retinitis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Treatment Progressive retinal necrosis Introduction Ocular features Investigation Treatment Acute retinal necrosis (ARN) Introduction Investigation Treatment Herpes simplex anterior uveitis Introduction Treatment Varicella zoster virus (VZV) anterior uveitis Introduction Treatment Cytomegalovirus anterior uveitis Introduction Treatment Rubella Measles Mumps Vaccinia Zika Ebola Fungal uveitis Presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS) Introduction Ocular features Investigations Treatment Pneumocystis choroiditis Cryptococcal choroiditis Endogenous Candida endophthalmitis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Aspergillus endophthalmitis Coccidioidomycosis Bacterial uveitis Tuberculosis Introduction Ocular features Investigation Treatment Acquired syphilis Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Investigation Treatment Lyme disease Introduction Ocular features Investigations Treatment Brucellosis Endogenous bacterial endophthalmitis Introduction Ocular features Investigation Treatment Cat-scratch disease Introduction Ocular features Investigation Treatment Leprosy Introduction Systemic features Ocular features Investigation Treatment Miscellaneous idiopathic chorioretinopathies Multiple evanescent white dot syndrome (MEWDS) Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Acute idiopathic blind spot enlargement syndrome (AIBSE) Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy (APMPPE) Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Serpiginous choroidopathy Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Relentless placoid chorioretinitis (RPC) Persistent placoid maculopathy (PPM) Acute macular neuroretinopathy (AMN) Acute zonal occult outer retinopathy (AZOOR) Punctate inner choroidopathy (PIC) Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis (MFC, MCP) Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Progressive subretinal fibrosis and uveitis syndrome (SFU) Birdshot retinochoroiditis Introduction Clinical features Investigation Treatment Acute retinal pigment epitheliitis (ARPE) (Unilateral) acute idiopathic maculopathy (AIM) Acute multifocal retinitis Solitary idiopathic choroiditis (SIC) Frosted branch angiitis (FBA) Idiopathic retinal vasculitis, aneurysms and neuroretinitis syndrome (IRVAN) 13 Retinal Vascular Disease Retinal circulation Arterial system Capillaries Venous system Diabetic retinopathy Introduction Ophthalmic complications of diabetes Prevalence Risk factors Pathogenesis Classification Signs Microaneurysms Retinal haemorrhages Exudates Diabetic macular oedema (DMO) Ischaemic maculopathy Clinically significant macular oedema Cotton-wool spots Venous changes Intraretinal microvascular abnormalities Arterial changes Proliferative retinopathy Treatment General Treatment of diabetic macular oedema Laser treatment for proliferative retinopathy VEGF inhibition for proliferative retinopathy Targeted retinal photocoagulation (TRP) Advanced diabetic eye disease Clinical features Indications for pars plana vitrectomy Diabetic papillopathy Non-diabetic retinopathy Retinal venous occlusive disease Introduction Risk factors Systemic assessment All patients Selected patients according to clinical indication Branch retinal vein occlusion Diagnosis Management Prognosis Impending central retinal vein occlusion Non-ischaemic central retinal vein occlusion Diagnosis Ischaemic central retinal vein occlusion Diagnosis Hemiretinal vein occlusion Diagnosis Treatment of the complications of CRVO Systemic management in retinal vein occlusion Papillophlebitis Retinal arterial occlusive disease Aetiology Systemic assessment All patients Selected patients Amaurosis fugax Branch retinal artery occlusion Central retinal artery occlusion Cilioretinal artery occlusion Treatment of acute retinal artery occlusion Systemic management following retinal arterial occlusion Asymptomatic retinal embolus Ocular ischaemic syndrome Introduction Diagnosis Management Hypertensive eye disease Retinopathy Choroidopathy Sickle-cell retinopathy Sickling haemoglobinopathies Anterior segment Non-proliferative retinopathy Proliferative retinopathy Diagnosis Treatment Thalassaemia retinopathy Retinopathy of prematurity Introduction Active disease Location Staging Type Screening Treatment Cicatricial disease Retinal artery macroaneurysm Diagnosis Treatment Primary retinal telangiectasia Idiopathic macular telangiectasia Coats disease Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Eales disease Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Radiation retinopathy Purtscher retinopathy Valsalva retinopathy Lipaemia retinalis Retinopathy in blood disorders Leukaemia Introduction Ocular features Anaemia Hyperviscosity 14 Acquired Macular Disorders Introduction Retinal pigment epithelium Bruch membrane Clinical evaluation of macular disease Symptoms Investigation of macular disease Fundus fluorescein angiography Introduction Technique Angiographic phases Causes of hyperfluorescence Causes of hypofluorescence Systematic approach to fluorescein angiogram analysis Indocyanine green angiography Introduction Adverse effects Diagnosis Indications Optical coherence tomography Introduction Normal appearance OCT-angiography Applications Fundus autofluorescence Wide-field imaging Definitions Age-related macular degeneration Introduction Classification Epidemiology Risk factors Drusen Histopathology Clinical features OCT Fluorescein angiography Differential diagnosis Antioxidant supplementation Introduction AREDS2 Other considerations Non-exudative (dry, non-neovascular) AMD Diagnosis Management Retinal pigment epithelial detachment Pathogenesis Serous PED Fibrovascular PED Drusenoid PED Haemorrhagic PED Retinal pigment epithelial tear Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) Introduction Clinical features Fluorescein angiography Indocyanine green angiography Optical coheren