Applied Mycology: Entrepreneurship with Fungi (Fungal Biology)

Fungi are an important link in the food webs of all ecosystems. They have immense potential and comprise a myriad of useful bioactive compounds. Fungi feature in a wide range of diverse processes and applications in modern agriculture, the food science industry, and the pharmaceutical industry. In the food and drink arena, the role of fungi is historically important in the form of mushrooms and in fermented foods as yeasts for baking and brewing. These roles are supplemented by the use of fungal food processing enzymes and additives, and more recently in the development of protein-based foodstuffs from fungi. Additionally, they are used in the formulation of biofertilizers and biopesticides used as biostimulants and bioprotectants of crops. The practical use of newer techniques such as genetic recombination and robotics have revolutionized the modem agricultural biotechnology industry, and have created an enormous range of possible further applications of fungal products. Myco-materials created from mycelia (the root-like parts of fungi) are gaining attention as a sustainable alternative for a wide range of materials. They are being used as insulation, sustainable packaging, foam inserts, and even "eco-leather.” In fact, mycelium bricks are pound-for-pound stronger than concrete. In addition, medicinal uses of fungal species have been historically recorded as important agents in the pharmaceutical sciences. The potential for myco-materials seems limitless. The field of mycology and its application has become an increasingly important component in the education of industrial biotechnology. This book on applied mycology provides information helpful for developing entrepreneurial opportunities with fungi. This volume explains both the basic science and the applications of mycology and bio-resource technology with special emphasis on entrepreneurial applications. It offers a complete, one-stop resource for those interested in microbiology, food and agricultural science, medical mycology, and for those in industrial biotechnology. Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Fungal Cosmetics: Mushrooms in Beauty Care and the New Age of Natural Cosmetics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Application in Skincare 1.2.1 Anti-microbial Properties 1.2.1.1 Anti-dermatophytic and Skin Protective 1.2.1.2 Anti-acne and Anti-inflammatory Properties 1.2.2 Emollient Properties 1.2.3 Exfoliation Properties 1.2.4 Skin Lightening and Brightening Properties 1.2.5 Anti-aging 1.3 Application in Hair Care 1.3.1 Anti-hair Fall 1.3.2 Anti-dandruff 1.3.3 Hair Moisturizing and Conditioning 1.4 Popular Mushrooms with Cosmetic Benefits 1.4.1 Tremella fuciformis 1.4.2 Ganoderma lucidum 1.4.3 Ophiocordyceps sinensis 1.4.4 Agaricus bisporus 1.5 Formulations 1.6 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Fungal Endophytes: A Potential Source of Low-Cost Entrepreneurship 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Classification of Fungal Endophytes 2.1.2 Reproduction Way of Fungal Endophytes 2.1.3 Fungal Endophytes of Tissue, Organ, and Host Specificity 2.1.4 Interactions Between Fungal Endophytes and Host Plants 2.1.5 Plant Protection by Fungal Endophytes 2.2 Fungal Endophytes Producer of Secondary Metabolites 2.3 Extracellular Enzyme Activities from Fungal Endophytes 2.4 How to Isolate Fungal Endophytes 2.4.1 Morphological Observations of the Isolated Fungal Endophyte 2.5 Extracellular Enzyme Analyses from Endophytic Fungi 2.5.1 Amylolytic Activity 2.5.2 Proteolytic Activity 2.5.3 Cellulolytic Activity 2.5.4 Lipase Activity 2.5.5 Laccase Activity 2.6 Fungal Endophytes as a New Source of Entrepreneur 2.7 International Companies Manufacturing Enzyme from Fungal Endophytes 2.8 Biotechnological Potential of Fungal Endophytes 2.9 Conclusion References Chapter 3: The Development of White-Rot Fungi as a Mycoremediation Product 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Habitat’s Contamination 3.1.2 Health Risks and Issues 3.1.3 Industry Sectors 3.1.4 Communities 3.2 The Role of White-Rot Fungi 3.2.1 Biodegradation Process by White-Rot Fungi 3.2.2 Mycoremediation of Environmental Pollutants 3.2.3 Capsule Technology of WRF Product 3.2.4 Cleaning and Removal Contaminations Product 3.3 Development of Potential WRF Product to Entrepreneurs 3.3.1 Natural Environment and Municipal 3.3.2 Agriculture Industry 3.3.3 Food Industry 3.3.4 Pharmaceutical Industry 3.4 Economic Value of Mycoremediation Product in the Market 3.4.1 Benefit to Researchers and Entrepreneurs 3.4.2 Income of Country 3.5 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Production, Partial Optimization, and Characterization of Keratinase Enzyme by Fungal Species Isolated from Soil of Bhopal 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Keratinases: Applications 4.1.1.1 Detergent Industry 4.1.1.2 Leather Industry 4.1.1.3 Food and Feed Industry 4.1.1.4 Fertilizer for Organic Farming 4.1.1.5 Biofuel Production 4.1.1.6 Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Applications 4.2 Materials and Methods 4.2.1 Collection of Soil Samples 4.2.2 Isolation of Keratinophilic Fungi 4.2.3 Morphological Microscopic and Molecular Identification of Keratinophilic Fungi 4.2.4 Optimization of Culture Condition for Mass Production of Keratinase Enzyme 4.2.5 Enzyme Production 4.2.6 Keratinase Assay 4.3 Results 4.3.1 Morphological Characterization 4.3.2 Molecular Identification of Fungi 4.3.3 Phylogenetic Analysis 4.3.4 Optimization of Culture Media for Keratinase Enzyme Production 4.3.4.1 Effect of Fermentation on Keratinase Enzyme 4.3.4.2 Effect of Temperature on Keratinase Enzyme Production 4.3.4.3 Effect of pH on Keratinase Enzyme Activity 4.3.4.4 Effect of Incubation Time 4.4 Discussion 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Potential Impression of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Agricultural Growth, Productivity, and Environment Toward Global Sustainable Development for Green Technology 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Positive and Active Microbes 5.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AM Fungi) 5.3.1 Development of Mycorrhizal Fungal Infection 5.3.2 Characteristics of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 5.4 Positive Impact of AM Fungi on Agricultural Crops and Environments 5.4.1 AM Fungi and Plant Growth 5.4.2 AM Fungi and Fertilization 5.4.2.1 AM Fungi and Nitrogen Absorption and Translocation 5.4.2.2 AM Fungi and Phosphorus Translocation 5.4.2.3 AM Fungi and Potassium Nutrition 5.4.2.4 AM Fungi and Other Mineral Nutrition 5.5 AM Fungi and Greenhouse Gas Emission 5.6 AM Fungi and Carbon Farming 5.7 AM Fungi and Soil Management 5.8 AM Fungi and Heavy Metals 5.9 AM Fungi and Environmental Temperature 5.10 AM Fungi and Abiotic Stresses 5.11 AM Fungi: A New Dimension for Green Technology 5.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 6: Mycometabolites in Industrial Applications with Emphasis on Bioherbicide Production 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Ecological Role of Fungi and Their Metabolites 6.2.1 Decomposition and Cycling of Organic and Inorganic Materials 6.2.2 Interactions with Other Organisms 6.2.3 Mutualistic Symbiosis with Plants 6.2.4 Competitive Interactions with Different Organisms 6.3 Secondary Metabolites Biosynthesis 6.3.1 Transcriptional Regulation of Secondary Metabolite Gene Clusters 6.3.2 Signalling and Regulations for pH, Light Intensity, Iron Starvation, and Oxidative Stress During Production of Secondary Metabolites Are as Follows 6.4 Fungal Formulation–Based Early Bioherbicides 6.5 Fungal Metabolites as Bioherbicides 6.6 Future Prospects of Fungal Metabolites as Bioherbicides and Entrepreneurship Possibilities 6.7 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Lichenized Fungi as Significant Source of Pharmaceuticals: Possibilities and Limitations for Entrepreneurship Development 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Applications of Lichenized Fungi 7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals 7.2.2 Pesticides 7.2.3 Dyes 7.2.4 Bioremediation 7.3 Exploring Lichens for Entrepreneurship Development 7.4 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Protocols for Extraction, Isolation, and Purification of Secondary Metabolites of Mushroom and Its Applications 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Protocol for Extraction, Isolation, and Purification of Secondary Metabolites of Mushroom 8.2.1 Selection, Collection, and Identification of Mushroom Material 8.2.2 Drying and Grinding 8.2.3 Extraction, Isolation, and Purification 8.2.3.1 Sequential Extraction Methods to Obtain Different Extracts from Shiitake Mushrooms (Morales et al., 2018) 8.3 Extraction and Isolation of Metabolites from Tapinella atrotomentosa 8.4 Extraction and Isolation of Secondary Metabolites from Agaricus macrosporus 8.5 Secondary Metabolites of Some Mushrooms and Their Applications 8.5.1 Ganoderma spp. 8.5.2 Lentinula edodes (Shittake Mushroom) 8.5.2.1 Polyacetylenes 8.5.2.2 Sulfurous Compounds 8.5.2.3 Sterols 8.5.2.4 Other Compounds 8.5.3 Flammulina velutipe (Golden Needle mushroom) 8.5.3.1 Cuparane Type Sesquiterpenes, Seco-Cuparane Type Sesquiterpenes 8.5.3.2 Spiroaxane, Cadinene, Nor-Eudesmane-Type Sesquiterpenes 8.5.3.3 Sterpurane-Type Sesquiterpenes 8.5.3.4 Cucumane-Type Sesquiterpene 8.5.3.5 Isolactarane Sesquiterpens, Isolactarane-Related Norsesquiterpenes 8.5.3.6 Norsesquiterpe Alkaloid 8.5.3.7 Monoterpenes References Chapter 9: Fungi as Nutraceutical: Present to Future 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Fungi: As Nutraceuticals 9.3 Nutraceutical Production: Using Fungi as Elicitors 9.4 Nutraceutical Discovery: Prospects of Fungi 9.5 Entrepreneurship Aspects of Fungal Nutraceutical Industry 9.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective of Nutraceuticals References Chapter 10: Potential Application of Edible Mushrooms in Nutrition-Medical Sector and Baking Industries 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Edible Mushrooms and Their Bioactive Compounds 10.2.1 Polysaccharides 10.2.2 Proteins and Peptides 10.2.3 Terpenes 10.2.4 Phenols 10.3 Application of Bioactive Compounds from the Edible Mushroom in the Nutraceutical Sector 10.3.1 Antioxidants 10.3.2 Cholesterol-Lowering Effect 10.3.3 Antiviral Activity 10.3.4 Antiobesity 10.4 Mushroom-Based Bakery Products and Their Benefits as a Functional Food 10.5 Bakery Product Development from Mushroom as New Ways for Entrepreneurship 10.5.1 Bread 10.5.2 Cake 10.5.3 Biscuits 10.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects References Chapter 11: Fungi in Pharmaceuticals and Production of Antibiotics 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Different Roles of Fungi in Pharmaceuticals 11.2.1 Antibacterial Antibiotics 11.2.2 Antimycotics and Fungicides 11.2.3 Biofilm Inhibitor 11.2.4 Antimalarial Agent 11.2.5 Anticancer Agents 11.2.6 Antidiabetic Agents 11.2.7 Improving Nerve Function 11.2.8 Cardiovascular Disease Control and Cholesterol-Lowering Agent 11.2.9 Antiviral Agents 11.2.9.1 Inhibitory Natural Product from Fungi Against Human Immunodeficiency Virus 11.2.9.2 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Influenza Virus 11.2.9.3 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) 11.2.9.4 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Hepatitis Virus 11.2.10 Immunosuppressive and Immunomodulatory Agents from Fungi 11.2.11 Traditional Chinese Medicine 11.3 Pharmaceutical Uses of Fungal Metabolites 11.3.1 Cephalosporin 11.3.2 Coumarins 11.3.3 Cyclosporin 11.3.4 Echinocandins 11.3.5 Ergot Alkaloids 11.3.6 Fingolimod 11.4 Biotechnology in Sustainable Production of Antibiotics 11.4.1 Biotechnological Processes-Associated Production 11.4.1.1 Production Using Full Fermentative Processes 11.4.1.2 Production Using Semi-Synthesis 11.4.1.3 Genetic, Metabolic Engineering, and Heterologous System for Production 11.4.2 Role of Biotechnology in Downstream Processing 11.4.3 Role of Biotechnology in Lead Development 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Optimizing Physical Parameters for Amylase Production Using Aspergillus niger and Ammonium Molasses Medium 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and Methods 12.2.1 Isolation of the Microorganism 12.2.2 Screening 12.2.3 Inoculation 12.2.4 Medium 12.2.5 Extraction 12.2.6 Influence of Initial pH, Temperature, and Incubation Time 12.2.7 Enzyme Assay 12.3 Results 12.3.1 Screening 12.3.2 Effect of Initial pH 12.3.3 Effect of Initial Temperature 12.3.4 Effect of Incubation Period 12.4 Discussion References Chapter 13: Plant–Fungal Interactions 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Genomics of Plant–Fungal Interactions 13.3 Mycorrhizal Association 13.3.1 Mechanism of Colonization 13.3.2 Formation of Hyphopodium 13.3.3 Gene Expression 13.3.4 Plant Growth and Development 13.4 Fungi as Biofertilizers 13.5 Disease Production 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Fungal Biofertilizer: An Alternative for Sustainable Agriculture 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Persisting Effects of Green Revolution 14.1.2 Biofertilizer: An Agent of Bio-based Agroeconomy 14.1.3 Types of Biofertilizers 14.1.4 Advantages of Biofertilizer 14.2 Soil Microbiome: A Repository of Nutrients for Plant–Microbe Holobiont 14.2.1 Soil Mycobiome: Pool of Promising Bioagents for Sustainable Agriculture 14.2.2 Biofertilizer in Agriculture 14.3 Fungal Biofertilizers: Biological Mechanism and Interactions 14.3.1 Mycorrhizal Fungi Used as Biofertilizers: Soil–Fungal–Plant (Root) Interactions 14.3.2 Ectomycorrhizae (ECM) 14.3.3 Endomycorrhizae 14.3.4 Bacterial–Fungal Interactions (BFIs) 14.4 Production, Formulation, and Application of Mycorrhizal Fungi as Fungal Biofertilizers 14.4.1 Penicillium spp. 14.4.2 Aspergillus spp. 14.4.3 Chaetomium spp. 14.4.4 Gliocladium spp. 14.4.5 Trichoderma spp. 14.4.6 Formulation of Fungal Biofertilizers 14.4.7 Mode of Application of Biofertilizers 14.5 Role of Fungal Biofertilizer in Sustainable Agro-Practices 14.5.1 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Alternative to Chemical Fertilizers 14.5.2 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhance Mineral Acquisition and Transport 14.5.3 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhanced Nitrogen Fixation 14.5.4 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhanced Phosphorus Content 14.5.5 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Efficient Biocontrol and Bioremedial Agent 14.6 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Agent of Pesticide Tolerance 14.6.1 Compatibility of Aspergillus niger Isolates with Pesticides 14.6.2 Compatibility of Trichoderma Isolates with Pesticides 14.6.3 Compatibility of ECM with Pesticides: A Novel Path 14.6.4 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganism (PGPM): Prospects and Constraints 14.6.5 Developing Nation Through Developing Effective Biofertilizers 14.7 Biofertilizer Production: Indian Scenario 14.7.1 Quality Control 14.7.2 Challenges and Prospects of Fungal Biofertilizer Usage 14.8 Conclusions References Chapter 15: Efficacy of Plant Products as Biofungicides for Postharvest Decay of Root, Tuber, and Bulb Crops: An Opportunity for Bioentrepreneurship 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Methodology 15.2.1 Pathological Studies 15.2.2 In Vitro Evaluation of the Antifungal Efficacy of Plant Extracts 15.3 Results and Discussion 15.4 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Plant Pathogenic Fungi and Their Phytotoxins as Bioherbicides 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Phytotoxins and Culture Filtrates 16.3 Considerations in the Use and Development of Microbial Herbicides by Alternaria petroselini (FCLW#23) 16.4 Potential Problems Associated with Bioherbicides 16.5 Use of Live Plant Pathogens Alternaria petroselini (FCLW#23) or Their Phytotoxins as Bioherbicides 16.6 Host-Specific Phytotoxins 16.7 Development Considerations 16.8 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Mycotoxins: A Concealed Threat in Agri-Food Sector 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Characteristics of Mycotoxins (Cinar and Onbaşı 2018; Etzel 1999) 17.2.1 Difference Between Primary and Secondary Metabolites 17.3 Toxicogenic (Mycotoxin-Producing) Fungi Can Be Distinguished into Two Groups 17.3.1 Preharvest 17.3.2 Postharvest 17.4 Mycotoxin-Detoxifying Agents 17.4.1 Mycotoxin-Adsorbing Agents 17.4.2 Mycotoxin-Biotransforming Agents 17.5 Impact of Mycotoxins on Livestock and Human 17.6 Conclusion 17.7 Summary References Chapter 18: Efficacy of Phytohormones on Mycotoxin Treated Maize Seeds (Zea mays L.) 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Material and Methods 18.2.1 Collection of Healthy Seeds 18.2.2 Collection of Aflatoxin B1 and Phytohormones 18.2.3 Preparation of Stock Solution 18.2.4 Seed Germination Index (GI) 18.2.5 Quantitative Estimation of Starch 18.2.5.1 Assay of α-Amylase 18.2.6 Quantitative Estimation of Protein 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.4 Conclusion References Chapter 19: The Untapped Potential of Fungi in Phenol Biodegradation 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Major Fungal Species for Phenol Degradation 19.3 Mycoremediation Pathways 19.4 Fungal Immobilization Techniques for Phenol Degradation 19.4.1 Cell Entrapment 19.4.2 Adsorption 19.4.3 Encapsulation 19.5 Fungal Reactor Models for Phenol Removal 19.6 Entrepreneurial Aspects of Fungal Bioremediation 19.7 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Mycobased Biorefinery for Gold Nanoparticles Production 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Mycobased Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles 20.2.1 Mechanism of Mycobased Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles 20.3 Challenges and Scale-Up for Entrepreneurship 20.4 Conclusion References Index