Antimony

Antimony (Sb) is an exciting chemical element ubiquitously present in our daily lives. This book provides a coherent and interdisciplinary picture of our current understanding of this element. Subjects ranging from its mineralogy, mining and environmental chemistry to its potential impact in ecosystems and human health are discussed in this monograph. Cover Half Title Also of interest Antimony Copyright Preface Contents 1. A brief history of antimony 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Antimony and the metals industry 1.3 Antimony and Basil Valentine 1.4 Antimony in the seventeenth century 1.5 Antimony and Nicholas Lemery 1.6 Antimony and Herman Boerhaave 1.7 Antimony in the nineteenth century 1.8 Antimony in the twentieth century References 2. Primary and secondary minerals of antimony 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Antimony in rocks 2.3 Primary minerals 2.3.1 Antimony minerals in orogenic, Carlin-type, and amagmatic deposits 2.3.2 Antimony in epithermal deposits 2.3.3 Antimony minerals in orthomagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE deposits 2.4 Transition from low-temperature hydrothermal overprint to weathering 2.5 Secondary minerals 2.5.1 Antimony oxides and hydroxides 2.5.2 Adsorption of antimony and incorporation of antimony into nominally antimony-free minerals 2.5.3 System Fe-Sb-O 2.5.4 System CaO−PbO−CuO−Sb2O3−Sb2O5−H2O: Minerals of roméite group 2.5.5 System MgO−NiO−Na2O−Sb2O5−H2O 2.5.6 Other secondary minerals of antimony 2.5.7 General features of secondary mineralogy of antimony References 3. Economic geology and environmental characteristics of antimony deposits 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Economic geology 3.2.1 Factors influencing ore genesis 3.2.2 Antimony deposit classification 3.3 Ore processing 3.4 Environmental characteristics 3.5 Conclusions References 4. Review of the anthropogenic flows and stocks of antimony 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Anthropogenic antimony cycle 4.2.1 Production and processing 4.2.2 Manufacturing and use 4.2.3 Waste management 4.2.4 Comparison of available MFAs from the literature 4.3 Conclusions and perspective References 5. Antimony in China 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Ore resources and production 5.3 Emission sources 5.3.1 Antimony emissions during antimony production processes 5.3.2 Antimony emissions during coal combustion 5.3.3 Antimony emissions during antimony manufacture and fabrication 5.3.4 Antimony emissions during usage of antimony-containing products 5.4 Distribution in the environment 5.4.1 Atmosphere 5.4.2 Soils 5.4.2.1 Antimony distribution in soils from mining areas 5.4.2.2 Antimony distribution in soils in the non-antimony mining areas 5.4.3 Waters 5.4.3.1 Abundance of antimony in mining area waters 5.4.3.2 Antimony concentration in waters from different regions 5.4.4 Sediments 5.4.4.1 Antimony distribution in sediments of the mining area 5.4.4.2 Spatial distribution of antimony in river/lake sediments 5.4.5 Plants 5.4.5.1 Antimony distribution in non-food plants growing in mining areas 5.4.5.2 Antimony distribution in vegetables and crops in mining areas 5.4.6 Animals and microorganisms 5.4.6.1 Antimony distribution in animals 5.4.6.2 Antimony distribution in microorganisms 5.5 Environmental and health risk of antimony 5.5.1 Human health risk of antimony 5.5.2 Environmental and ecological risk 5.6 Policy and management 5.6.1 Emission standards 5.6.2 Pollutant emission permits 5.6.3 Pollution control 5.6.4 Representative facility 5.7 Conclusion and perspective References 6. Diffuse soil contamination by antimony 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methods 6.2.1 Datasets 6.2.2 Mapping 6.2.3 CDF analysis 6.3 Results References 7. Antimony soil–plant transfer 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Soil factors influencing antimony solution concentrations and speciation for plant uptake 7.2.1 Mineral surfaces 7.2.2 Solid and dissolved soil natural organic matter 7.2.3 Competitive ions 7.2.4 Co-precipitation and precipitation 7.2.5 Redox 7.2.6 Biomethylation 7.3 Antimony accumulation and species in plants 7.4 Rhizosphere effects 7.5 Plant uptake, translocation and storage 7.5.1 Uptake 7.5.2 Translocation, subcellular distribution, and transformations 7.5.3 Hyperaccumulation 7.6 Toxicity and detoxification References 8. Shooting range contamination: antimony occurrence, transport, and fate 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Occurrence of antimony at small arms shooting ranges 8.2.1 Distribution of antimony in soil 8.2.2 Weathering of bullets and solid phase speciation 8.3 Fate of antimony in soil and soil water at contaminated shooting ranges 8.3.1 Redox speciation of antimony in shooting range soils 8.3.2 Leaching of antimony in shooting range soils 8.4 Antimony bioavailability and uptake in biota 8.4.1 Bioavailability 8.4.2 Uptake of antimony in plants 8.5 Remediation options for shooting range soils 8.6 Lessons and perspectives References 9. From headwaters to oceans: antimony across the aquatic continuum 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Analytical and methodological considerations 9.3 About time scales 9.4 Systems 9.4.1 Rivers 9.4.2 Lakes 9.4.3 Transitional systems between land and ocean 9.4.4 Oceans 9.5 Chemistry at work 9.5.1 Redox and solubility issues 9.5.2 Influence of natural organic matter 9.5.3 Influence of iron oxy(hydroxides) 9.5.4 Influence of sulfide 9.6 Biota at work 9.7 Conclusions References 10. Radioactive antimony: known emissions and environmental dispersion 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Characteristics of radioactive antimony 10.2.1 Half-lives and radioactive decay 10.2.2 Unique anthropogenic origin 10.3 Sources and emitted activities to the environment 10.3.1 Historical releases from punctual nuclear bomb tests 10.3.2 Continuous releases from nuclear installations: NPPs and fuel reprocessing plants 10.3.3 Registered accidental releases from NPPs: cases of Chernobyl and Fukushima 10.4 Environmental reactivity and biogeochemical behavior 10.4.1 Solid fractionation and solid/liquid partitioning (Kd) 10.4.2 Transfer rates, bioaccumulation factors, and radiotoxicity 10.4.3 Environmental dispersion and fate References 11. Biomethylation and biovolatilization of antimony 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Terminology 11.1.2 Basic chemical properties 11.2 Biomethylation pathway 11.2.1 Factors affecting the biomethylation of antimony 11.3 Analytical techniques 11.3.1 Standards and certified reference materials 11.3.2 Sample preservation 11.3.3 Sampling and preservation of volatile and non-volatile species 11.3.4 Solid sample extraction and stability of extracts 11.3.5 Speciation analysis 11.3.5.1 Hydride generation 11.3.5.2 Gas chromatography 11.3.5.3 High-performance liquid chromatography 11.3.6 Detector systems 11.3.6.1 Atomic absorption spectrometer 11.3.6.2 Atomic fluorescence spectrometer 11.3.6.3 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer 11.3.6.4 Mass spectrometer 11.4 Occurrence and behavior 11.4.1 Aerobic microorganisms 11.4.2 Anaerobic microorganisms 11.4.3 Aquatic environments 11.4.4 Soils and sediments 11.4.5 Biota 11.4.6 Sewage sludge fermenters 11.4.7 Landfills 11.4.8 Geothermal hot springs 11.5 Toxicity 11.6 Future outlooks Abbreviations References 12. Molecular mechanisms of antimony transport and detoxification 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Uptake and release of antimony via the aquaglyceroporins 12.2.1 The yeast aquaglyceroporin Fps1 12.2.2 Plant aquaglyceroporins 12.2.3 Protozoan aquaglyceroporins 12.2.4 Vertebrate aquaglyceroporins 12.3 Pathways of antimony detoxification 12.3.1 Sb(III)/As(III)-specific transporters 12.3.1.1 ArsB 12.3.1.2 Acr3 12.3.1.3 ArsK 12.3.2 Sb(III) complexation and sequestration via the ABC transporters 12.3.2.1 Ycf1 and glutathione in S. cerevisiae 12.3.2.2 MRP1 and glutathione in mammals 12.3.2.3 ABC transporters and trypanothione in Leishmania 12.3.2.4 ABC transporters and phytochelatins in plants and fungi 12.3.3 Antimony biotransformation as a means of detoxification 12.4 Challenges and perspectives References 13. Pentavalent antimonials in the treatment of human leishmaniasis 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Leishmaniasis in humans 13.2.1 Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) 13.2.2 Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL) 13.2.3 Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) 13.2.4 Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) 13.2.5 Leishmania and HIV coinfection 13.3 Epidemiological aspects 13.3.1 Burden of leishmaniasis 13.3.2 Major foci and human behavior 13.3.2.1 Mediterranean Basin 13.3.2.2 Southeast Asia 13.3.2.3 East Africa 13.3.2.4 The Americas 13.3.3 Socioeconomic factors 13.3.4 Malnutrition 13.3.5 Population movements 13.3.6 Environmental changes 13.3.7 Climate change 13.3.8 Periodic fluctuations in incidence of disease 13.4 Pentavalent antimonials and human leishmaniasis 13.4.1 Overview 13.4.2 Overdose 13.4.3 Interactions 13.4.4 Mechanism of action and resistance 13.4.5 Pharmacokinetics 13.4.6 Combination therapy 13.4.7 Use of pentavalent antimonials by leishmaniasis type 13.4.7.1 Visceral leishmaniasis caused by L. donovani in East Africa and Yemen 13.4.7.2 Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in East Africa 13.4.7.3 Visceral leishmaniasis caused by L. infantum in the Mediterranean Basin, Middle East, Central Asia, and South America 13.4.7.4 Cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. major, L. tropica, L. aethiopia, and L. infantum 13.4.7.5 Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Americas 13.4.8 Access to quality-assured pentavalent antimonials 13.4.9 Way forward References 14. Ecotoxicity of antimony 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Quality criteria for ecotoxicological data 14.3 Ecotoxicity data for antimony 14.3.1 Antimony toxicity in the aquatic environment 14.3.2 Antimony toxicity to sediment organisms 14.3.3 Antimony toxicity in the terrestrial environment 14.4 Bioaccumulation and secondary poisoning 14.5 Endocrine disrupting properties 14.6 Environmental quality standards 14.7 Conclusions References 15. Antimony: human exposure 15.1 Distribution and guidelines 15.2 Human exposure to antimony through water 15.3 Human exposure to antimony through the vegetable–soil system 15.4 Human exposure to antimony through aquatic ecosystems 15.5 Human exposure to antimony through atmospheric contamination 15.6 Antimony in food 15.7 Antimony in humans: absence of evidence or evidence of absence? References 16. Legislating antimony and its compounds 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Criticality and recycling 16.3 Classification 16.4 Risk assessment 16.5 Site restrictions 16.6 Product restrictions 16.7 Waste and recycling References Appendix References Index Antimony (sb) Is An Exciting Element Present In The Group 15 Of The Periodic Table. This Book Gives An Introduction To This Metalloid, Describes Its Chemistry, Properties And Use In Everyday Products And Medicine. The Investigation And Analysis Of Sb In The Environment Is Of Major Importance Due To Its Toxicity. The Impact On Human Exposure And The Eco-system As Well As The Biogeochemical Cycle Of Sb Are Discussed In This Monograph.